
Book ' w>o 



CORfRIGHT DEPOSm 



AMERICAN EDUCATION SERIES 
GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER, GENERAL EDITOR 



AMERICAN EDUCATION SERIES 
GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER. GENERAL EDITOR 



EVERY TEACHER'S 
PROBLEMS 



BY 

WILLIAM E. STARK 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
HACKENSACK, N. J. 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

BOSTON ATLANTA 



V3 






Copyright, 1922, 

By AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

All rights reserved 



EVERY teacher's PROBLEMS 



£.P. X 



MADE IN U. S. A. 

DEC -i "22 

©C1A692138 



EDITOR^S INTRODUCTION 

Books dealing with the technic of teaching have almost 
invariably emphasized the importance of the inductive 
method. These same books have commonly proposed 
certain principles based upon psychology, and have sought 
to indicate the validity of these generaHzations by more 
or less pertinent illustrations ; but they have been almost 
wholly deductive in their method of deahng with the 
principles of teaching. The author of this book has em- 
ployed the inductive method in his discussion of every 
teacher's problems. 

The solution of problems has been urged as a method of 
stimulating the intellectual life of pupils, but the questions 
appearing in the pedagogical treatises have seldom involved 
the more difficult situations with which teachers have to 
deal every day of their professional life. In this book the 
author proposes many problems that have actually re- 
quired solution as a part of the day's work. He has so 
grouped them that one is able to arrive at certain gener- 
alizations or statements of principle as a result of thinking 
through carefully the successful solutions proposed. The 
book will prove most helpful because of the reahty of the 
issues discussed. It cannot fail to be intellectually stimu- 
lating because it is an embodiment of sound pedagogical 
procedure. 

Out of a rich experience in teaching, supervision, and ad- 
ministration Mr. Stark has brought together problems 

5 



6 editor's introduction 

dealing with the technic of teaching, with discipKne, and 
with social relationships which occur in every teacher's 
Ufe. The suggestions which grow out of the proposed 
solution of problems occurring in the classroom are supple- 
mented by discussions of the relation of teachers to super- 
visors, to parents, to the community, and to the profession 
in which he serves. 

One is convinced as he reads the text that not only are 
the problems themselves real, but that the solutions pro- 
posed and the discussion provided are genuine. Teachers 
of hmited experience will gain much from reading the dis- 
cussion of their most difficult problems as developed by 
experienced teachers. Those who have been longer in the 
profession will find much that is helpful in the varying 
points of view expressed and in the sane and well-matured 
conclusions which are presented by the author. No one 
can read the book sympathetically and fail to respond to 
the plea which it makes for a higher t3^e of professional 
service. 

George D. Strayer. 



PREFACE 

This book is an attempt to help teachers to acquire a 
professional attitude toward their work and to grow in 
professional knowledge and skill. Its distinctive feature 
is its method of developing principles through the study 
of concrete situations. 

The body of each chapter consists of an account of the 
active process of solution of typical cases, in which teachers, 
principals, superintendents, and parents take part. It is 
hoped that the reader will join the group, answering the 
arguments presented by the actors in each Uttle educational 
drama and making his own contribution to the discussion. 

Following the development of each series of typical prob- 
lems, comes an explicit statement of the principles which 
have appeared implicitly in the course of the solutions. 
These statements are to be regarded, not as rules to be 
learned but as suggestions to be studied critically. It 
would be well for the reader to make his own formulation 
of principles before reading those given in the book and to 
use the latter for comparison with the results of his inde- 
pendent thinking. 

At the end of each chapter is given a series of problems, 
taken from various departments of the school, which the 
reader should work out for himself. He should do this 
carefully, testing his proposals in the light of his princi- 
ples, and questioning the soundness of each step in his so- 
lution. One problem to which the reader has devoted his 

7 



8 PREFACE 

best thought will be more valuable than a dozen treated 
superficially. 

The reader must bear in mind that other solutions are 
possible besides those suggested. In many cases it is im- 
possible to tell with certainty what is the best solution. 
The problems as stated do not give the whole situation. 
Even if a given problem were before us in the form of the 
actors themselves, instead of a mere verbal statement, we 
should not have the whole situation unless we knew every- 
thing about the people concerned and everything about 
their environment which might possibly have a bearing on 
the case. Thus to state the situation completely would be 
an enormously compHcated matter, even if one could have 
the necessary knowledge. Consequently the solution of a 
problem will depend partly upon factors which are not 
stated, but which are assumed by the person who attempts 
to solve it. If the additional factors assumed by two per- 
sons are different, their solutions will be likely to differ. 
For example, in Problem 5 (page 26), if a person assumes 
that the teacher of the higher grade has a very strong 
spirit of service and plenty of endurance, he may regard it 
as the best plan to promote the boy on trial and let this 
teacher give him a great deal of individual instruction. 
On the other hand, if he assumes crowded classes and in- 
experienced teachers, his solution may be quite different. 

Let nobody suppose that all the problems given in this 
book will be completely solved. Many of them will con- 
tinue to be problems as long as there are children to be 
educated and human nature remains complex and variable. 
But they are all problems which teachers have to face. 
We shall have to do something about them. If we learn 



PREFACE 9 

to deal with them more wisely, regarding our own solutions 
not as final but as the most promising plans which we can 
devise with our present knowledge — tentative steps to 
be tried and improved as we gain more Hght — we shall be 
making progress toward a real educational profession. 

The author would like to make sincere acknowledgment 
to those who have helped, but he finds it impracticable to 
mention them by name. Without doubt those who have 
contributed most to whatever merit the book may possess 
are the pupils, teachers, principals, supervisors, and par- 
ents with whom the author has worked during the past 
twenty-odd years, who have taught him many things 
about human nature, and who have given him constant 
stimulation, by example or encouragement or challenge, 
in his efforts to solve his own problems. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Some Preliminary Trials at Problem Solving . 13 
Some General Principles 

II. Problems of Discipline 30 

Rules and Punishments 

III. Problems of Discipline 41 

Child Nature and Habit Formation 

IV. Problems of Discipline 57 

The Child's Attitude ; Self -Direction ; Ideals 
V. Problems of Subject Matter 78 

Selection of Educational Material ; Relation of Sub- 
ject Matter to Purpose; Making a Course of 
Study ; How to Test the Value of Subject Matter 

VI. Problems of Subject Matter 116 

Appropriateness of Material for Children of Various 
Grades; Differentiation of Subject Matter 

VII. Problems of Method 134 

Relation of Method to Purpose ; the Socialized Reci- 
tation ; the Common Recitation ; the Project Method 

VIII. Problems Due to Variations in Ability of Pupils 167 
Language Handicap ; Group Teaching ; Rapid Pro- 
motions 

. IX. Problems Involving Economy of Time . . .186 
Distinguishing the Important from the Non-Essen- 
tial ; Efficiency and System ; the Value of Planning 
10 



CONTENTS II 

CHAPTER PAGE 

X. Problems of Health 212 

Hygiene at School and at Home; the Teacher's 
Responsibility; Cooperation with Parents; the 
Influence of Example 

^ XI. Problems of Relationship with Supervisors . 229 
Purpose of Supervision ; the Teacher and the Super- 
visor; Cooperation 

XII. Problems of Relationship with Administrative 

Officers 251 

Accepting Criticism ; Cooperation with Superintend- 
ent; Assignment to' Posts; Contracts 

^XIII. Problems of Relationship with Other Teachers 277 
Jealousy and Prejudice ; Mutual Help ; Teamwork 

^XIV. Problems of Relationship with Parents . . 296 
Cooperation; the Face-to-Face Method; the Child 
Labor Problem ; Educating Parents 

XV. Problems of Professional Growth . . .318 
Keeping out of the Ruts; Learning the Trade; the 
N. E. A. ; Making Teaching Respectable 

XVI. The Teacher as Problem-Solver . . . .351 
Recognition of Problems; the Problem Method of 
Teaching 

Index 361 



EVERY TEACHER'S. PROBLEMS 

CHAPTER I 
SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS AT PROBLEM SOLVING 

Some General Principles 

Problem 1. — A boy has been very troublesome in school. He 
is lazy and often impudent; occasionally plays truant; has 
given trouble in previous grades. His teacher, Miss A., de- 
clares that he is a nuisance and ought to be expelled. The 
principal takes the case up in teachers' meeting and asks teachers 
for their views. 

Several teachers agree with Miss A. that the boy should 
be expelled for the good of the school. One asks what is 
to become of him after expulsion and another replies with 
some heat that that is ''up to his parents "; he has had 
his chance and thrown it away ; the school has no further 
responsibility. 

One teacher says that expulsion will please the boy, that 
what he needs is something that will hurt him. She thinks 
he ought to be thrashed soundly. At this Miss B., who 
has tried several times to speak but has stopped modestly 
as other more forceful spirits claimed attention, jumps to 
her feet and, in a voice shaking with excitement, cries out : 
"He is thi'ashed unmercifully every day of his life except 
when he runs away. I had him in my class last year and 
I know what his home is like.'' 

13 



14 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS 

In response to the principaFs inquiry as to what she would 
advise, Miss B. replies: "I am not sure what is best, but 
I am sure that thrashing will accompHsh absolutely nothing 
with that boy except to make him more bitter, and I know 
that if he is turned out of school to run the streets, he will 
become a criminal in a very short time. It may not be 
possible to save him. It seems almost impossible to get 
behind the sullen, silent opposition with which he meets 
every advance. He apparently is at war with the whole 
world, and after seeing his home, I can understand this 
state of mind. Once or twice I succeeded in getting him to 
respond a little to my efforts to be friendly, and I think 
that if one could gradually win his confidence and be patient 
with him, it might be possible to make a man of him." 

The principal says : *' We have a number of very different 
opinions. Let us see if we can agree on any factors in the 
case. The ideas which you have expressed are these : 

1. The boy's conduct is a detriment to the school, and 
he should therefore be expelled. 

2. He deserves no consideration because he has shown 
no appreciation of the opportunities afforded him. 

3. The school has no responsibihty for his future since 
he has defied its efforts in his behalf. 

4. He should be made to suffer for his transgressions. 

5. His behavior seems to be due, in part at least, to his 
environment outside the school. 

6. He is in a fair way to become a menace to the com- 
munity. 

7. There is a possibility of making a good citizen of him 
through methods adapted to his own peculiar nature. 

Let me now propose some questions : 



SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1 5 

1. If it should prove to be impossible to keep the boy in 
school without injury to the other pupils, should we be 
justified in excluding him?" 

There is general assent, one teacher remarking: "The 
greatest good to the greatest number." 

2. "Where does our responsibility to the boy and his 
parents end?" 

After some discussion, the teachers agree on the answer : 
"When we have done everything that we can to help him 
to make the most of himself." 

3. "Has the community any interest in the matter?" 
The conclusion is easily reached that it is important for 

the community that the boy shall become as good a citizen 
as he is capable of becoming. 

4. "Should the treatment of the boy be influenced by a 
desire to pay him back for the trouble which he has caused 
or for his insulting behavior toward us?" 

All agree that this should not be done, although it would 
be in accord with one's natural impulse. One teacher 
suggests that the boy should be regarded as a sick person, 
an interesting, if exasperating, case and that teachers should 
look upon his behavior as a symptom of his moral ill-health, 
in no way humiHating to the physician who is treating him. 

5. "Can we use a standard method in dealing with this 
case?" 

There is a chorus of "Noes." Miss B. says: "No two 
children are alike. We have got to try to understand each 
one and use the method which will win response. It is 
the result that counts." 

• Miss A. then says: "I wish to withdraw my recom- 
mendation and try again." This is approved, with the 



1 6 SOME PRELIMINARY TR-IALS 

understanding that if further effort by the teacher and the 
principal should prove ineffective, the boy should be ex- 
cluded from school and that, in that case, the principal 
should try to have him placed in an institution where he 
could be under proper control without endangering the 
welfare of others. 

Problem 2. — The question arises as to whether a girl in the 
senior class of the high school shall be allowed to graduate. 
She has had to repeat a number of subjects and has spent five 
years in completing the course. She has worked much harder 
than the average student, but has had great difficulty in meeting 
the requirements, especially in mathematics and Latin. In 
household arts courses, her work has been exceptionally good and 
she has shown so much ability in managing social affairs that 
she is always made chairman of the class committee in charge 
of such events. Her final marks are "excellent" in household 
arts and physical training, "passable" in English and history, 
and "poor" in Latin. 

At a conference of the teachers concerned, the household 
arts teacher says that the girl is the best that her depart- 
ment has ever turned out ; that she will be a great success 
as a homemaker and will have influence among the people 
with whom she associates. The history teacher says that, 
on the basis of marks in recitations and examinations, she 
would not have passed, but he has no doubt that, in the 
duties of practical citizenship, she will surpass many of the 
students of high scholarship. Therefore he has given her 
a passing mark. The Latin teacher. Miss A., declares that 
she cannot conscientiously pass this student. The stand- 
ard of the school must be considered. If pupils are gradu- 
ated merely because they are good cooks and show desirable 
moral qualities, the school will lose its reputation for scholar- 
ship. 



SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 17 

The principal then closes the conference with this state- 
ment: "The general consensus of opinion is that Helen 
is entitled to a diploma, but Miss A. feels that this would be 
a serious mistake. The responsibility for the decision 
rests upon me. I may, if I choose, accept the majority 
opinion as most likely to be right or as involving less of 
arbitrary authority on my part. I believe, however, that 
if we think over calmly and open-mindedly what has been 
said, we shall be able to discover some underlying principles 
upon which we can all agree. If we succeed, we shall be 
able to work together more effectively and we shall be 
better able to solve other problems as they arise. 

Our differences seem to be due to the fact that we are 
giving different emphasis to the various factors in the case, 
in accordance with different ideals. We all want to do the 
right thing and we shall be more confident that we are right, 
if we think out clearly the reasons for our opinions. I am 
going to ask you, therefore, to reflect on these questions 
and to meet me to-morrow to decide the matter. 

1. Should the chief aim of the school be to prepare pupils 
to meet college entrance requirements ? 

2. Is the development of moral quaHties a proper fuJic- 
tion of the school ? 

3. Are academic studies of more value than homekeeping 
activities for all girls ? 

4. Should the high school be regarded as primarily for 
pupils of the ' academic ' type ? 

5. Will the public interest be best served by enforcing 
a rigid scholarship standard in the high school? 

6. What purposes are served by the award of a 
diploma ? 

E. T. PROS. 2 



l8 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS 

7. Will the accomplishment of these purposes be affected 
if the diploma is awarded in such a case as the one before 
us? 

8. If the answer is ' Yes, ' will the public interest be 
best served by refusing graduation to this pupil, or by modi- 
fying the plan of graduation so that pupils of Helen's type 
will be eligible?" 

At the meeting next day, it is agreed : 

1 . The chief aim of the school should be to help students 
to fit themselves for the greatest possible usefulness as 
citizens. A secondary aim should be to enable candidates 
for college entrance to meet the requirements. 

2. The development of moral qualities is an important 
function of the school. Teachers should keep this aim in 
mind and give every possible encouragement to the develop- 
ment of such quaHties. 

3. For some girls, the homekeeping activities are more 
stimulating to growth than the usual academic studies of 
the high school. From the standpoint of education, the 
question is not ^' Which is the more worthy subject for 
study? " but "Which will do most for this pupil? " 

4. The high school should not be regarded as a ''select" 
school. It should welcome any pupil whose needs can 
apparently be better served in the high school than in any 
other accessible institution. 

5. A rigidly enforced scholarship standard would not be 
in the public interest, since its effect would be to eliminate 
many pupils who would profit by more education. The 
point is made that a flexible standard would be more difficult 
to administer but it is agreed that the only standard con- 



SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1 9 

sis tent with the purpose of education is "the pupil's best." 
The effect ought not to be a general lowering of standard 
but a raising of the requirements for the abler pupils. 

6. The diploma has ordinarily been used as an incentive 
to study and as a certificate of accompKshment. It was 
agreed, however, that in practice, the diploma means noth- 
ing very definite in the way of accomplishment. Among 
those who receive the diploma there is a great variation in 
actual attainment and there is no evidence that a student 
who obtains one will make a better citizen than one who 
does not. 

7. The award of a diploma in the case in question might 
affect the value of this distinction if students simply gained 
the idea that failure in a course or two would not interfere 
with their graduation, but would not do so if they realized 
that industry and good citizenship in school affairs are as 
essential to graduation as the receipt of certain marks. 
The award of a diploma to a pupil whose scholarship is 
inferior would be misleading if it were understood to be 
based upon scholarship alone, but need not cause confu- 
sion if the basis of the award is clearly stated in the 
document. 

8. It is the general opinion that the diploma might 
safely be given in this case if a suitable note were added to 
the diploma and a statement were made at the graduation 
exercises that graduation is taken to mean not merely the 
attainment of a certain standard of scholarship but also 
the exhibition of desirable qualities of citizenship, coupled 
with earnest effort. It is felt that the diploma should, 
in every case, state as explicitly as possible the abilities 
and accomplishments of the pupil receiving it. 



20 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS 

Problem 3. — A teacher of strong and attractive personality- 
has always a model class, from the standpoint of orderHness. 
Classes, which have been troublesome with other teachers, 
" eat out of her hand," after the first half hour. Children 
adore her and respond to her slightest wish. After leaving her 
class, they revert promptly to their previous habits. She has 
often heard herself referred to as a wonderful teacher and has 
received the grateful tributes of parents. During a vacation, 
she attends a lecture, in which the speaker emphasizes the danger 
of relying upon a dominating personality in the education of 
children. He says that such a teacher ought not to estimate 
the results of her work by the conduct of the children while they 
are under her influence, but by what they do after they leave 
her. This sets her thinking. 

After a time, she writes to a friend : *'I have been through 
a week of heart-searching and humiliation. I see clearly 
that, instead of the paragon that people have called me, I 
have been a downright failure. It has always been so easy 
to get anything that I wanted from the children, that I 
have allowed myseK to make puppets of them and have 
become famous for my skill in pulling the strings. Bless 
the man who showed me what I was doing ! I am eager 
to get back to work and see whether I can do some real 
teaching. 

I am going to try desperately to give my boys and 
girls something 'for keeps.' I have got to lead them to 
think, to have ideas of right and wrong, and to learn to 
decide things for themselves, instead of doing whatever they 
think will please me. Children like me, and therefore it 
ought not to be impossible to interest them in ideas that 
I believe in. The problem will be to interest them in the 
ideas themselves and in their own power to think and 
act." 



SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 21 

Problem 4. — The course of study in a city school system calls 
for the teaching of the parts of speech in the fifth grade. A 
teacher becomes very much discouraged over the results of her 
efforts to carry out the requirement. Most of the children 
manage to learn the definitions, but only a few seem to grasp 
the ideas clearly. With the exception of the few who do well 
and enjoy a sense of superiority, the children show little interest 
and quickly become inattentive. The teacher sees an article 
in an educational magazine in which the writer declares that 
grammar has no place in the elementary school. This comforts 
her until she mentions it to the superintendent, who retorts with 
much emphasis that grammar is the best means of mental train- 
ing in the curriculum. He advises more drill. 

The teacher decides that she will not be "stumped** by 
this problem. She goes to the library and looks up all the 
references that she can find on the teaching of grammar. 
The doctors disagree but the most convincing articles all 
take the position that much of the grammar which is ordi- 
narily taught in the elementary school serves no useful pur- 
pose. The teacher can think of no ground for disputing 
the contention that grammar in the elementary school 
should be limited to facts and principles which will actually 
help children to speak or write better English or under- 
stand better what they read. She reads accounts of some 
tests in which children who had studied grammar showed 
no superiority in these abilities over those who had not. 

She then visits the classes of several fifth-grade teachers 
whose work has been highly recommended. In some of 
these classes, she sees grammatical work of the same type 
as her own, and observes some teaching devices which inter- 
est her. She notices, however, that many of the children 
exhibit the same lack of interest and failure to understand 
grammatical ideas as her own pupils. In one class, the work 



22 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS 

is of an entirely different character. When she arrives, 
the children are about to write a story. They discuss 
their plans orally and a few tell their stories. The class 
offers criticism and the teacher puts in an occasional ques- 
tion. There is vigorous discussion upon the selection of 
words which will best express the meaning and give the 
reader the clearest picture of the characters and the action 
of the story. Our teacher is interested to see that, while 
there is no mention of parts of speech, the children seem 
to understand the function of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, 
and use them far more skillfully than any other class which 
she has visited. She notices especially the keen interest 
and active participation of everybody. When the stories 
are completed, she is permitted to examine all of them. 
She is surprised to find that there are fewer granmiatical 
errors than her own children make after all her drill, and 
she is amazed at the freedom of expression, choice of words, 
and variety of ideas. 

At the close of the session, she asks the other teacher for 
a brief conference, explains her own difficulties, and begs 
to know how such results as she has seen can be obtained. 
The other teacher says: *'I think I understand the diffi- 
culty because I have been through the same experience. 
I have tried the drill method and convinced myself that it 
is a failure in teaching little children to speak and write. 
It is attempting to force the thoughts of adults upon minds 
which have no capacity for absorbing them. A few excep- 
tional children grasp the ideas but in most cases the result 
is mere parrot imitation, with no effect upon the use of 
EngHsh. 

Children like to do things and love to express themselves 



SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 23 

when they have something to say. They have vivid imag- 
inations when you give them a chance. On the other hand 
they have Kttle or no interest in analysis. That will come 
later, for some of them at least. What we teachers need 
to do is not to take our own thoughts and methods of work 
and attempt to drill them into the children, but to study 
the children themselves, see what interests them most, 
and show them how to improve their work. Then we are 
working 'with the grain,' not against it. 

One secret of success with children of this age which the 
'drill teacher' is apt to overlook is not to keep them work- 
ing on the same thing too long. When the children began 
to get restless, I used to 'prod' them, call for attention, 
and impose punishments. But the plan never worked. 
Now when I notice any flagging of attention, I quickly 
change to some other kind of work for a time. The result 
is that far more is accomphshed because the children are 
working hard with me instead of offering more or less pas- 
sive resistance. 

This study of children is a fascinatirg occupation, in- 
finitely more interesting than hearing recitations of text- 
book lessons. No one, I think, has very exact knowledge 
of child nature as yet, but a lot of progress is being made by 
teachers who take a scientific attitude toward their work. 
The classroom teacher has the best possible opportunity for 
observation and experiment, and I am trying to get a little 
new light every year." 

Our teacher says to herself on her way home : "I think 
I see the way out of my difficulty, if Mr. Jones willlet me 
try a different plan of teaching EngHsh." 

But Mr. Jones, as she says, is another problem. 



24 some preliminary trials 

Method of Solution 

We have now taken up several problems and suggested 
the ways in which teachers attempted to work them out. 
In none of the cases was a complete, final solution reached, 
but a better understanding of the problem was gained and 
a tentative solution arrived at, to be tested by experiment. 
This method will be found applicable to most school prob- 
lems. Education has not become a science and it is un- 
safe to be dogmatic. Conclusions should be accepted 
tentatively, to be tested by experience and modified as 
new knowledge is gained. 

In most of the problems, the particular questions have 
suggested more general ones and the answers given have 
depended upon general ideas or convictions. These general 
ideas are not axioms. They are behefs rather than scien- 
tific principles, and must be given up if experience shows 
them to be invalid. They represent, however, our best 
thought on the subject, not mere opinion, but judgments 
based on aU our present knowledge. We must make use 
of such general ideas, for otherwise every problem which 
arises must be worked out anew. When we acquire general 
ideas to which we can refer our specific problems, and by 
hard thinking we succeed in tying them together into a 
consistent view of the educational field with which we are 
acquainted, we have a philosophy of education. Then 
we are not obliged to base our opinions merely upon tra- 
dition or fashion or authority. Our views depend upon 
fundamental ideas which we have thought about and believe 
in, and which we can defend. 

Our trial problems have brought out some fundamental 
principles, that is, they are fundamental in the author's 



SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 2$ 

philosophy, and are a constant guide to him in his solution 
of problems. They are stated more explicitly below. 
The reader does not need to accept them ; in fact, should 
not do so without questioning them thoughtfully. He 
should, however, formulate principles of his own. After 
studying the principles, rejecting and substituting as much 
as he needs to do in order to be consistent with himself, 
he ought to be prepared to attack the problems which follow. 

Principles for the Guidance of the Teacher 
IN THE Solution of Problems 

1. The purpose of education should be kept in mind at all 
times. The solution of any problem should be consistent 
with this purpose. 

2. The purpose of education is to secure the develop- 
ment of each individual to the greatest degree of happiness 
and usefulness of w^hich he is capable. The happiness of 
the individual and his usefulness to society will often con- 
flict unless the individual comes to accept the public welfare 
as a dominating ideal. The teacher should aim to culti- 
vate in the pupil a desire to make the most of himself for 
the common good. As the pupil acquires this ideal, the 
process of education should become one of cooperation 
between the teacher and the pupil. 

3. The success of the teacher, in the light of the pur- 
pose of education stated above, will depend upon his knowl- 
edge of the nature of the child, the laws of child develop- 
ment, and the needs of society, as well as upon his skill 
in dealing with children. The teacher's professional study 
should therefore include child study, sociology, and the 
art of teaching. 



26 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS 

4. The teacher should aim to make himself a scientific 
worker in the pubHc service. He should take an objective 
rather than a personal attitude toward his work and to- 
ward the people with whom his work brings him into con- 
tact. If he himself beheves strongly in the ideals of the 
public welfare and the progress of humanity, he will not 
be disheartened or made bitter by misunderstanding or lack 
of appreciation. He will regard such behavior as defects 
of human nature, or individual development, or public 
sentiment, — a stage in the progress of humanity, to be 
regarded objectively, to be ''allowed for" as one allows for 
a head wind or a muddy road, to be overcome as far as 
possible, but not to be resented or combated or despised 
as a personal affront. If the teacher is seriously concerned 
with the best possible development of the children in his 
class, he will think of them as imperfect growing plants to 
be nurtured. He will not be discouraged or made angry 
if some of them are lazy or troublesome or dishonest. He 
will take such characteristics as signs of defect, to be studied 
and removed if possible. He will not be reHeved when a 
boy is sent to reform school, although he may try to have 
the boy sent there for his own good. He will be dissatisfied 
when, and only when, a pupil has failed to make the prog- 
ress of which he was apparently capable. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 5. — A pupil is older than the other children in the 
class, but does very poor work in most subjects. Although he 
has already repeated the grade, his average for the year falls 
below the passing mark. Outside of school, he plays with boys 
of higher grades and is a leader among them. He makes a good 
deal of money by selling papers and doing odd jobs. The 



PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED 27 

teacher feels that he does not belong with the younger children 
but does not see how she can properly promote him. She fears 
that, if she does so, the teacher of the higher grade will criticize 
her. 

Problem 6. — A teacher receives the following note : 

Miss Jones : 

You have done a very mean thing to my daughter. 
She came home all in a tremble and she does nothing but cry. 
She knows you don't like her and so you did not promote her 
for spite. She has worked very hard and she has a right to be 
promoted. I shall see that she gets her rights. How do you 
know what she can do when you never call on her? You can 
rest assured that she will never return to your class. I shall 
send her to another school first. This matter will be taken 
to the board of education. 

Mrs. John J. Anderson 

Problem 7. — A boy in the third year of high school, who has 
exceptional ability, announces to the teacher that he is about 
to leave school, to take a position in a business office. The 
teacher calls on the boy's mother to urge that he continue his 
education. The mother says that she had expected to send him 
to college, but when a friend, who is a partner in a very lucrative 
business, offered to give him a position, and assured her that 
the boy would have an opportunity to make far more money 
than he could earn in a profession, she thought it too good a 
chance to miss. 

Problem 8. — A board of education, finding it necessary to 
raise teachers' salaries, and fearing the criticism which a large 
increase in taxes is likely to cause, discusses various plans of 
retrenchment. Among the proposals are elimination of kinder- 
garten classes, reduction of the number of teachers with increase 
in the size of classes, and elimination of manual training. The 
board appoints an evening for a public hearing on the proposals 
and invites teachers especially to give their views. 

Problem 9. — The principal of a school urges the introduction 
of manual activities, and proposes that teachers prepare them- 



2$ SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS 

selves for the work. Some of the teachers oppose the plan on 
the ground that it will make a great deal of extra work. They 
start a petition asking the board of education not to approve 
the scheme, and all but one of the teachers sign. This teacher 
says that, before she commits herself, she wants to be sure that 
she is doing the right thing. She will think the matter over 
until the next day and will then either sign or give her reasons 
for not doing so. 

Problem 10. — A new teacher is assigned to a school in which 
there are many children of foreign parentage, coming from poor 
homes. Some of them are dirty and ill-mannered. Her room- 
mate, who teaches in a school where, she says, there is " a nice 
class of children," asks: "Why don't you ask the superintend- 
ent to transfer you to another school? " 

Problem 11. — A boy in one of the upper grades makes little 
effort during the practice periods in penmanship. The teacher 
tries to " stir him up " and frequently keeps him after school 
for practice. He says that he doesn't see any use in everlast- 
ingly making circles and writing words over and over, that he 
can write well enough when he feels like it. The teacher retorts 
that it is not his place to say what he should do in school, that 
he will have to do the regular work and might as well make up 
his mind to it. She works very hard and continues to keep him 
after school, but his writing does not improve. 

Problem 12. — A teacher is given the opportunity to select 
some new reading material for her class. The principal merely 
stipulates that she shall give reasons for her choice. 

Problem 13. — A high school teacher has a class which he says 
is the dullest one that he has ever had. Several of the students 
drop out during the term and two thirds of them fail in the 
term's work. He doesn't see why such people should be allowed 
to come to high school. 

Problem 14. — A high school teacher is dissatisfied with the poor 
recitations made by her pupils. They are inclined to give mono- 
syllabic replies. She constantly asks questions and frequently 
feels obliged to interpret pupils' answers so that the class will 



PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED 29 

understand what was meant. She visits a class in another 
school in which the pupils take a very active part in the class 
exercise. They engage in very vigorous discussion, while the 
teacher, who sits in the back of the room, speaks rarely. Our 
teacher wishes that she could have such students. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter I. 
Bagley, W. C, School Discipline, Chapter IV. 
Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter I. 
Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter I. 
Engleman, J. O., Moral Education in School and Home, Chapter H. 
Patri, Angelo, A Schoolmaster of the Great City, Chapters I, II. 



CHAPTER II 
PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

Rules an® Punishments 

Problem 15. — A teacher who has been much annoyed by- 
frequent cases of tardiness, makes a rule that any pupil who is 
tardy must remain after school that day for an hour, and that 
his name must be placed on the tardy list for one week. Soon 
afterwards, a little boy arrives, a few minutes after the opening 
of school. He is very much out of breath and in tears. The 
teacher says sternly : " Write your name on the tardy list and 
remain this afternoon." The child writes his name on the 
blackboard under the word tardy following those of several 
old offenders. He is pale and restless all day. The next 
morning, before school, the principal comes into the classroom 
and tells the teacher that the boy's father called him up the 
previous evening, in high temper, saying that the child was 
sent to the drug store for medicine, that he protested that he 
would be late for school but was assured that it was his duty 
to do the errand for his sick mother and the teacher would ex- 
cuse him. The father expressed his opinion of a school that 
punishes children for obeying their parents. The principal re- 
quests the teacher to report to him that afternoon how she plans 
to deal with the matter. 

The teacher has the problem on her mind all day. Her 
first impulse is to excuse herself. The father ought to 
have gone for the medicine himself. The boy ought to have 
told her why he was late although she knows in her heart 
that she wouldn't have listened to him, even if he had had 
courage to try to explain. Suppose she had asked for an 
explanation and had excused him, what would have become 

30 



RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 3 1 

of her rule? The children would think that rules would 
not really be enforced. The boy did not really deserve to 
be punished but it was better for the class. And what a 
mean thing the father had said — that the school was 
trying to make children disobey their parents, when she 
was working her head off for their children ! She would 
give a good deal if that man could have a chance to teach 
the class for just one day. 

At noon, when she has a chance to think without interrup- 
tion and has recovered from her excitement, she begins to 
feel differently. She knows that she has not been fair to 
the youngster, and he is such a timid, well-meaning little 
chap ! She is even able to put herself in the father's 
place. 

Just before the close of school, she says: "Children, 
put away your work. I have something to say to you. 
I made a mistake yesterday when I punished Eddie for 
being late. I have since learned that it wasn't his fault. 
He had to get some medicine for his mother who is sick. 
That was the right thing for him to do. He ought to have 
been praised, not punished, for doing his duty, when he was 
afraid of being late. So we will rub out his name from the 
tardy list, and put it under the words obedient to duty. 
That means doing the right thing even if you may be pun- 
ished for it. 

I am going to take back that rule, and I am going to trust 
you children never to be tardy again if you can help it ; 
but if your mother or father tells you that it is your duty 
to do something which will make you late, do it and then 
tell me about it. If anyone is careless and is late when it 
is his own fault, I shall have to punish him to help him to 



32 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

remember, but I hope that nobody will be punished again 
when he has done right." 

After reporting to the principal what she has done, she 
says: *'I am going to see Mr. Brown to-night and try to 
make him believe that, although I made a mistake this 
time, the school is really trying to teach the children to do 
their duty." 

Problem 16. — A high school boy has a strong distaste for 
school and urges his parents to let him go to work. They are 
ambitious for him and insist on his remaining until he graduates. 
He is inattentive in class, seldom prepares his lessons, and some- 
times " cuts " classes. 

Two of his teachers, meeting by chance, begin to discuss 
the case. One says: ''I met Mr. Lane yesterday and ad- 
vised him to send George to work. He is simply wasting 
his time. He does nothing in school, and punishment only 
makes him sullen. I won't have him in the room when he 
comes unprepared. He has sat in the office most of the 
time this week while his class has been reciting." 

The other replies: *'You may be right in advising his 
going to work, but I have the feeling that we owe it to the 
parents and to the boy himself to get him to take advantage 
of his opportunity for an education if we possibly can. I re- 
member that, at his age, I was determined to leave school 
but my father and one of the teachers induced me to stay 
and I have always been grateful to them. If it had not 
been for that one teacher, I should probably be a clerk now 
instead of doing what is to me the finest work in the world." 

The first teacher retorts: ''You talk about getting him 
to take advantage of his opportunity, but how are you going 
to do it ? He hates school and no punishment affects him, 



RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 



33 



because he knows that the worst that you can do to him is 
to dismiss him, and that is just what he wants." 

The other goes on: "That is just the trouble. . If we get 
angry with him and punish him in resentment, it only makes 
him worse. If we really want to change his attitude and 
keep him in school, we have got to learn how to treat him 
so as to produce that effect. As I see it, the worst possible 
method is to keep him idle by sending him from the class. 
We must try to get him interested. For the time being, it 
does not matter much whether he does exactly what we have 
laid out for the class, provided he exerts himself on some- 
thing and gets rid of the idea that school is simply a place 
where unsympathetic teachers try to compel him to do tasks 
which he despises. I am not proposing that he should be 
allowed to do just what he likes, but if we want to help 
the boy, we have got to change his attitude before we try 
to make him conform to the school regime. 

I know that he has good ability and is capable of getting 
very much interested in problems requiring hard thinking. 
Once in a while, a matter comes up in class which appeals 
to him. Several times, on such occasions, he has shown 
more knowledge and common sense than any of the other 
students. A few days ago, when he came unprepared, I 
kept him after school, but instead of making him study, I 
set him to work helping me on some new apparatus. He 
worked splendidly and made a suggestion which led to a 
decided improvement in the contrivance. After an hour, 
I told him that he might go but he stayed on until the work 
was finished. The most interesting part of the whole 
affair was that the next day, he had his lesson perfectly and 
took active part in the recitation. I am inclined to think 

E. T. PROB. 3 



34 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

that if we are friendly, give him a chance to do things occa- 
sionally in which he excels, and encourage him at such times, 
and if, when we impose punishments, we let him see that 
our purpose is not merely to make him do something dis- 
tasteful, he will gradually get out of his present state of 
mind and become a credit to us. At any rate I think that 
method is worth trying out." 

Problem 17. — A teacher leaves the room for a few minutes. 
On her way back she hears a great deal of noise, which stops 
the moment she enters the room. She knows that there has 
been disorder but is not sure of the individuals who have been 
responsible. She immediately delivers a stinging lecture to 
the class saying that she is ashamed of them, that this is the first 
class that she has not been able to trust. She orders the whole 
class to stay after school. There are many sullen looks and an 
unusual amount of disorder during the rest of the session. For 
several days she notices an unfriendly spirit, even among pupils 
who have never before given the slightest trouble. 

The situation worries her and she finally takes it to the 
principal, saying that she does not see what has got into the 
class. The pupils seem to dislike her and to delight in 
doing things to annoy her. Then she bursts into tears. 

The principal asks if she can think of anything which 
could have turned the class against her and she finally 
speaks of the episode which resulted in the punishment of 
the class, although she cannot see how that can account 
for the subsequent behavior, since she has often kept 
pupils after school without arousing any resentment. 

The principal then points out that children have very 
strong convictions about what they call unfairness. It 
seems probable to him that the pupils have deeply resented 
the injustice of her rebuke and punishment of the whole 
class for an offense of which perhaps only a few were guilty. 



RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 35 

He says: "You will have to work patiently to restore their 
confidence in you. You must be very careful to be just. 
Don't distrust the class or let the pupils feel that you dis- 
trust them as a group. Rather encourage them to take 
pride in the class and its power to be self-directing. When 
you scold or punish a whole class it has little effect, except 
to lower the class tone. On the other hand if you commend 
the class whenever you can properly do so, it helps to de- 
velop a good class spirit." 

Problem 18. — A teacher has the practice of requiring pupils 
who misbehave or whose work is unsatisfactory to her to re- 
main after school. Her room is always well filled for at least 
a hah hour after school closes. There is no evident improve- 
ment. If there is any change it seems to be for the worse. 
The principal asks her to talk over the situation. 

The teacher is inchned at first to resent any criticism of 
her work and to insist that she is doing all that anyone could 
do with such children. He points out that this same class 
was regarded as a particularly good one the previous year 
and that she had much the same difficulty before these 
children came to her. Then she begins to cry, saying that 
she is evidently a failure, that she works all the time and is 
worrying herself sick. 

The principal says: "Now don't be absurd. Miss D. I 
have watched your work and I know that you have qualities 
which we can't afford to lose. You are up against a prob- 
lem, that's all. Now just face it calmly and let's see if 
we can get at the diflSiculty. When you first met this class 
did the children impress you as particularly bard ones to 
manage?" 

"No," she says, "for the first day or two, they were 



36 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

delightful. I thought they were remarkably well-mannered 
and bright, but gradually they seemed to become careless 
and then troublesome and now they won't do anything 
until they are forced to do it. I hate to be inflicting pun- 
ishments constantly, but I can't allow them to be idle and 
disobedient." 

The principal replies: "It seems probable that there is 
something in your method of dealing with the children 
which breaks down previous good habits and tends to 
estabhsh worse ones. When the children came to you, 
they were courteous and responsive. What has happened 
to change this attitude? I wonder if you soon began to 
make demands upon the children which they did not under- 
stand, and if you punished them when they could not see 
that they were to blame. I do not know whether that is 
the case but if so, it would explain their behavior. If chil- 
dren come to feel that a teacher does not understand them, 
if they are punished for failure to do something which they 
do not understand, they are sure to lose confidence in her. 
Then, instead of being actively helpful, they are apt to sit 
back and wait for the teacher to act. 

It is certain that the present lack of sympathy between 
teacher and class is having a very bad effect. If it continues, 
the situation is bound to grow worse, just as a spirit of 
confidence and good feeling is bound to stimulate a group 
to greater effort and continual improvement. 

You must be careful not to expect too much of the chil- 
dren. Remember that they cannot see into your mind even 
as well as you can see into theirs. Make sure that you and 
they understand one another. Praise and encourage them 
whenever they have made a good effort, but don't make 



RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 37 

the mistake of praising them when they know that they 
don't deserve it. They will think that you are trying to 
buy their good will or that you are ^easy,' and that is as 
bad as to be unjust or harsh. Don't punish a child re- 
peatedly. If the punishment does not accomplish the 
purpose promptly it is a failure. Repetition makes the 
child callous. Try a different method. 

Your problem will be hardest at first because you will 
have to overcome a strong prejudice and bad habits, but 
if you are determined to solve it, if you study the children 
carefully and are patient, you will presently win out. As 
you get more experience, you will learn to deal with the 
children, so that many of the situations which are now 
troublesome to you will be properly and almost uncon- 
sciously met and overcome." 

Miss D. then says: ''I believe you are right. I am not 
conscious of having made unreasonable demands nor 
inflicted unjust punishments but I am quite sure that the 
children do not understand me and I am very ready to 
beHeve that I have not understood them. I shall try to 
get a spirit of cooperation in place of law and punishment." 

Principles Relating to Rules and Punishments 

1. Uniform inflexible rules are dangerous. A rule 
should be regarded as a means not an end. The application 
of a rule should be interpreted in the light of the purpose 
of education. 

2. Pupils should understand the purpose of a rule. They 
should be encouraged to cooperate as far as possible in the 
making and enforcement of necessary rules. 

3. Punishment should be used in a manner consistent 



38 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

with the purpose of education — not by rule. Punish- 
ment should never be inflicted in a spirit of revenge. 

4. A good punishment accomplishes its purpose without 
frequent repetition. 

5. Punishment should fit the offense — not be arbitrary. 

6. Enforced idleness should rarely, if ever, be used as a 
penalty. 

7. A child should not be punished unless it is clear that 
he is to blame. 

8. It is never wise to punish a whole class for the fault 
of an individual. 

9. Punishment often repeated loses its effect. When 
such punishment seems to be necessary, it is usually a sign 
either that too much is expected of the child or else that he 
is not cooperating. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 19. — Some of the members of a class begin to throw 
paper wads. The teacher becomes exasperated, and directs 
that the boy stand who threw a wad that has just been seen. 
Nobody moves — she tries again without result. Then she 
directs that the whole class stay after school until the guilty 
one confesses. 

Problem 20. — A teacher observes disorder in one corner of 
the room and feels sure that she knows the culprit. She orders 
him to stay after school. He protests that he has not done 
anything, but she says : " Don't you dare to talk back to me — 
you may stay for a week." He looks at her angrily, mutters, 
and is thereafter sullen and indifferent. 

Problem 21. — A young teacher makes a good start. Children 
are well behaved at first, but soon begin to misbehave. She 
begins to scold and impose severe penalties, realizes that she 
has gone too far and suddenly tries to be sympathetic — some- 
times sentimental. The class gets worse and worse, becoming 



RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 39 

very disrespectful. Children are very rude and noisy, and even 
throw things before her eyes. 

Problem 22. — A boy has never been tardy during six or more 
years of school life. He lives nearly a mile from school. On a 
cold, slippery morning he is two minutes late. The rule is that 
pupils who are tardy shall remain after school for 30 minutes. 

Problem 23. — A teacher of a country school becomes exas- 
perated by the carelessness of the children and says : " The 
next child who drops a pencil will be whipped." In a few min- 
utes, a httle girl who is the pet of the class jumps up to show the 
teacher a drawing which she has just finished and brushes her 
pencil off the desk. 

Problem 24. — The lawn in front of a school building is dis- 
figured by a path worn by children who cut across the corner to 
save steps. 

Problem 25. — A child is restless, shuffles his feet, squirms on 
his seat, and annoys the child in front of him. The teacher 
makes him sit in a chair in the front of the room facing the wall 
and tells him to keep perfectly still if he doesn't want a whipping. 
He remains there for thirty minutes. 

Problem 26. — A child who is troublesome is sent to the coat- 
room where he remains for the rest of the session, more than an 
hour. 

Problem 27. — A young teacher has trouble in controlling her 
class. When ordinary punishments fail, she sends a pupil to 
the principal. This seems to have a good effect at first, so on 
the spur of the moment she uses the same method for a very 
small offense. Before long she is sending pupils to the prin- 
cipal every day, and yet the class is very disorderly. The 
pupils do not seem to fear the punishment. She feels that the 
principal is not " backing her up." 

Problem 28. — A kindergarten class is set to work making a 
box. One of the children just plays with his material, spoils his 
paper, and smears paste on another's work. The teacher tries 
without success to get him to work and then tells him to go and 
stand in the corner. 



40 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

Problem 29. — A high school girl hands in a story as an English 
exercise, which seems familiar to the teacher. She finally dis- 
covers it to be an exact copy of a story published a few years 
before in a popular magazine. 

Problem 30. — A library book which has been missing for some 
days is found in a pupil's desk. He maintains that someone 
must have put it there. 

REFERENCES 

Bagley, W. C, School Discipline, Chapters X-XIII. 

Morehouse, Frances M., The Discipline of the School, Chapters X, 

XI, XIII, XIV. 
Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter VII. 
Engleman, J. O., Moral Education in School and Home, Chapter V. 
Perry, A. C, Discipline as a School Problem, Chapter XXV. 



CHAPTER III 
PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

Child Nature and Habit Formation 

Problem 31. — A kindergarten child frequently acts in a selfish 
manner. When there is anything to eat, he reaches for the 
biggest piece. If a new toy is brought to school, he tries to ap- 
propriate it and screams if prevented. If he sees another child 
at work with material which pleases his fancy, he tries to take 
it for himself. When rebuked he cries passionately and insists 
on going home. A new teacher, coming to take the class, is 
warned by the retiring teacher that " this child is completely 
spoiled. You can't do anything with him." 

The new teacher says to herself: ''Maybe I can't but 
I can try. If I am to be an expert in training little children, 
I shall have to learn how to deal with such cases. This 
looks like an opportunity for me to grow." 

During the first few days, she watches the child closely 
and discovers that he has plenty of ability. In anything 
which interests him, he works persistently and intelligently, 
but if he doesn't want to do a thing, he is as stubborn as a 
mule. The selfish traits, of which she has been warned, 
are very evident. 

By calling upon the mother, she soon learns that the same 
characteristics are even more pronounced at home. The 
child rules the household. When denied what he wants, 
he screams as though in a frenzy, and the frightened mother 
gives in. 

41 



42 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

The teacher thinks about the case a great deal. She sees 
that the situation is perfectly natural. The selfishness 
is easily accounted for. It is the universal inheritance. 
The trouble is that this high-spirited boy has never been 
trained to control his selfish impulses, (^he habit of get- 
ting what he wants is firmly fixed and the habit of pleas- 
ing others is absent. The problem is to develop the second 
habit and weaken the first. 

The experience of the previous teacher and observation 
of the child's home have shown that ordinary punishment 
or scolding has no good effect, so our teacher experiments 
with other methods. She discovers that the boy is much 
more responsive to praise than to blame, and she takes 
care to commend him when he has done anything well. 
She shows pleasure when any of the children act generously 
and disappointment when anyone is selfish. When the 
boy acts like a robber baron, she says: ''Henry doesn't 
feel like working with us now. People can't work together 
unless they are kind to each other. We will let Henry 
work by himself until he wants to be kind." He is not 
allowed to rejoin the group, regardless of "tantrums," 
until he shows a real desire to do so in a good spirit, and 
then he is welcomed back cordially. Gradually the com- 
bined effect of affection for the teacher, association of con- 
siderate behavior with the right to take part in the class 
activities, and satisfaction whenever he does well, de- 
velops new habits of social behavior which control the selfish 
impulses. 

Problem 32. — In a fourth grade, a boy slyly kicks the boy in 
front of him. The latter turns around and scowls and flien 
goes on with his work. Presently the kick is repeated, the 



CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 43 

kicker enjoying the impotent rage of his victim. He keeps a 
furtive eye on the teacher and is apparently intent on his book 
when her attention is attracted by the movement of the boy 
in front. The latter is just turning back to his work and is told 
sternly to pay attention to his own affairs. This delights the 
tormentor and he snickers in a carefully measured tone. At 
the next kick, a few minutes later, the boy in front is out of his 
seat like a flash and raining blows on the other. 

The teacher is horrified. She seizes the pugilist by the 
collar and drags him protesting to the principal's ofiice. 
She is very much excited and feels that the boy's offense 
is unpardonable. She starts to pour out her story in the 
presence of several other persons. 

The principal says: "Wait a minute," and clears the 
office. Then he says calmly: ''Now let's get at the facts. 
Bob, tell me just what happened." The boy is still angry 
and at first is incoherent in his reply, but cool questioning, 
with no suggestion of distrust or contempt, gradually 
brings out the facts and cahns him down. The principal 
then says : "Now, while I am talking with Miss E., I want 
you to do an errand for me. When you get back, we will 
decide what must be done to straighten this matter out." 

The other boy is then summoned. He is not inclined 
to accept much blame, saying that he was just having a 
little fun with Bob by making him mad. When asked 
what he would have done if Bob had done the same thing 
to him, he said he would have "laid for him after school." 
He is then told to wait outside the ojB&ce until sent for. 

"Now, Miss E.," says the principal, "I think we have 
the facts. What shall we do ? " 

"I think both boys should be whipped," she replies. "Bob 
had strong provocation, but such behavior in the classroom 



44 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

is intolerable. He could have told me that Jack was kick- 
ing him. He acted like a wild beast. It was a disgrace 
to the school and an insult to the teacher." 

The principal replies : "I feel as strongly as you do that 
such a thing must not occur again, but we must not allow 
ourselves to be so overcome by the disgracefulness of the 
occurrence as to regard these children as criminals. Both 
of them were following deep-seated instincts. One of 
them took a mean advantage of the other and rejoiced in 
his discomfort, but that is a trait of human nature which 
is very strong in many individuals and which has to be 
trained out of them. The other boy lost his self-control 
and became for the moment a savage. A part of his 
nature, for which he is not responsible, is still savage, 
along with much that is civilized and lovable. We must 
not judge these boys by ourselves. We could not possibly 
have behaved as they did, although I suspect that we some- 
times do things in a more refined way which are based on 
the same instincts. We have built up ideals and habits 
and customs which control our natural impulses. Bob's 
control apparatus was not strong enough to prevent the 
explosion. It must be developed. 

Now, in trying to devise the proper method of treatment, 
we shall have to consider the interest of the boys and the 
influence of the affair upon the class. I doubt if whipping 
would help the boys much. Both of them were prepared 
for a fight in which they would probably receive more 
physical punishment than if they were whipped. We don't 
care especially to make their bodies sore, but we do want 
to put some restraining influence into their minds. My 
notion is to have the boys come in for a conference, let them 



CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 45 

see for themselves, without preaching at them, that the 
good name of the school and the welfare of the class have 
been injured by their behavior, and that we must find a 
way to overcome the injury and prevent its recurrence. 
I should like to tell them a little about instincts and habits 
and how people have become civilized. I hope that they 
will feel ashamed of having let their feelings control them 
as if they were animals, and will be anxious to prove that 
they are their own masters. They may possibly offer to 
try to make things right with the class, although that is 
expecting a good deal from youngsters of their age. If they 
do not offer to do it, you can talk the matter over with the 
class yourself, and if the boys show a good spirit, the other 
children will suffer no harm. 

As to punishment, it seems to me that, since the boys 
have shown an uncivilized behavior unworthy of the class, 
the natural penalty would be to consider them not full 
members until they have proved that they can be counted 
upon to be good citizens. They might be denied some 
privileges for a few days and then be reinstated by vote of 
the class, or they might not be permitted to take part in the 
class activities, simply working as individuals and reciting 
after school during the probationary period. If the empha- 
sis, until the affair is settled, is placed consistently upon self- 
control and regard for the rights of others as essentials 
of good citizenship, the occurrence may result in real prog- 
ress for the class as well as for the boys themselves.'* 

Problem 33. — An eighth-grade class has the habit of " talking 
out." Pupils interrupt each other and even interrupt the 
teacher. If one child starts to ask a question, another is apt 
to break in, in a louder tone. E the teacher asks a Question, 



46 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

several reply at once. She often feels obliged to preface a 
question with the warning: "Raise your hands if you wish 
to answer." She continually says : '* Sh-sh," " Wait until I 
call upon you," " Is your name Mary?" etc. 

The teacher is greatly troubled by the situation. She 
wants to have a natural, friendly atmosphere in the recita- 
tion and believes that pupils ought to be encouraged to 
express themselves, yet she feels obliged to repress them 
constantly and realizes that, in spite of frequent admonition, 
they are making no progress in courtesy toward the person 
who has the floor. 

While reading a book on educational psychology, she 
finds in the chapter on habit formation some illustrations 
which remind her of her own problem. She studies the 
chapter with interest, criticizing her own practice in 
accordance with the principles stated by the author. 

The first point which claims her attention is the state- 
ment that, if an act brings satisfaction to the person who 
performs it, it is more likely to be repeated than if it brings 
discomfort. ''That," says the teacher to herself, ''would 
seem to justify me in rebuking or punishing pupils who 
speak out, but the discomfort is apparently not sufiicient. 
Perhaps I ought to use more severe penalties, but if I do 
that, it will surely kill all spontaneity in class discussion 
and probably spoil the friendly relationship between me 
and my pupils. I believe that the cure would be worse 
than the disease." 

Reading on, the teacher meets this: "Repetition of an 
act tends to ^x it as a habit." "Therefore," she thinks, 
"my boys and girls must be prevented from interrupting 
each other and so strengthening the habit. I wish he would 



CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FOEMATION 47 

tell me how to do it. Of course, if that were the only con- 
sideration, I might accomplish the purpose by removing 
all temptation. I might abandon class discussion, at least 
for a time, do all the talking myself, and let the pupils 
write their answers and put any questions that they have 
to ask into a question box. I should think, however, that 
such a method would destroy interest, and I hate the pros- 
pect of reading all those papers. I wonder, after all, if the 
habit would be broken up by removing temporarily all 
opportunity for talking. How long would it take? I 
might try it and see, but I'll wait until I have read the whole 
story.'' 

"In order to fix a good habit or to overcome a bad one, 
satisfaction or discomfort should always be associated with 
the action. If a 'bad actor gets away with it ' occasionally, 
the process of rooting out the habit is greatly retarded." 
''Have I been living up to that principle?" she asks herself. 
"Have I been consistent in commending pupils who await 
their turn and showing disapproval whenever anyone 
interrupts ? Let me see if I can recall what happened to- 
day during the history period. I remember asking : 'What 
date is this?' Half the class immediately said, 'November 
nth.' It did not occur to me to show any disapproval, 
and, although several children had raised their hands 
instead of speaking, I accepted the answer in concert and 
asked: 'Do you know of any historical event which took 
place on November nth?' Again several hands went 
up but others promptly answered, 'Armistice Day' or 'The 
end of the War,' and Wilbur jumped out of his seat en- 
thusiastically and, speaking in a manner to compel atten- 
tion, said : 'The German representatives agreed to the terms 



48 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

that General Foch said they must accept if they wanted to 
stop fighting.' I was carried away by his enthusiasm and 
asked him some more questions. The class became so 
much interested that many wanted to talk, and I am afraid 
that those who talked loudest got most attention. This 
soon led to confusion and I called for quiet and said : ' Please 
remember to raise your hands.' It took some time, several 
rebukes, and a few appointments for 'after school,' to induce 
the whole class to wait, after a question had been asked, 
until someone was called on. I don't doubt that I forgot 
myself several times and accepted spontaneous answers, 
even during the last part of the period. It seems evident 
that I did not act consistently in accordance with the 
principle. If I had done so, I should have ignored the 
spontaneous answers at the beginning of the period and 
called on someone whose hand was up. I wonder if that 
would have destroyed the enthusiastic interest with which 
the recitation began. I must try it. It is certain that 
to-day's method was wrong. I made no progress in over- 
coming the bad habit, and the repression used during the 
last part of the period entirely destroyed the interest awak- 
ened at the beginning." 

"Sometimes the easiest way to destroy a bad habit is 
to develop a good one which opposes it." 

"Ah! There's an idea!" she exclaims. "If I could 
build up a habit of courtesy toward others, it would act 
as a check on the tendency to 'speak out,' and it would 
not discourage spontaneity as much as constant repression. 
Control does not develop courtesy. There is no reason why 
it should. How can a habit of courtesy be built up ? The 
first three principles seem to apply. 'A feeling of satisfac- 



CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 49 

tion associated with an act encourages its repetition/ 
'repetition tends to make the act habitual/ and 'any 
lapses interfere with the formation of the habit.' I have 
been fixing my attention on the bad habit and trying to 
check it by rebuke and punishment. I must concentrate 
upon courtesy and consideration for others. I must praise 
.a pupil every time he refrains from interrupting when he 
evidently has something to say. I must always recognize 
pupils who act courteously in preference to those who do 
not. I must give plenty of opportunity for the exercise 
of courtesy — that cuts out the proposal to allow no talking 
at all — but I must try to avoid any lapses. The pupil 
who forgets and 'speaks out' must get no encouragement. 
I shall have to try to make him sorry. There's the trouble ! 
Give the pupil plenty of rope but don't let him hang him- 
self. I don't see how to do it, but perhaps this writer has 
som-e more help to offer." 

"In establishing a habit, the interest of the led,rner has 
an important influence. Mere repetition without interest 
and therefore without attention is not effective." "That's 
the point that I needed," she thinks. " If I merely make the 
pupils go through the motions of courteous action, they 
won't become courteous. I must get them interested in 
it. I think I see how to do it. We can take as our stand- 
ard the procedure in a conference of well-bred adults. 
If the group is not too large, no formal organization is needed 
in such a meeting. The well-bred person refrains from 
interrupting, no matter how eager he is to speak. He 
awaits his opportunity, Kstening courteously to the person 
who has the floor. In a group as large as an ordinary 
class, even adults need a chairman who recognizes those 

E. T. PROB. 4 



50 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

who ask permission to speak. Either the hand signal or 
the usual phrase, 'Mr. Chairman,' or, if the teacher is 
presiding, ' Miss Jones ' will serve the purpose. 

I beheve that the pupils will be interested in working 
out with me a plan for controlling our recitations or con- 
ferences. We might attend a well managed meeting of 
adults and discuss the procedure. The class may want 
to adopt some rules. At times one of their number might 
act as chairman.'' 

Our teacher tries out the plan. She finds, as she expected, 
no difficulty in securing the interest of the pupils, but 
she discovers that the interest is not strong enough to con- 
trol their action for a long period. She goes back to her 
book and finds the statement that, in acquiring a new habit, 
it is harmful to continue practice for too long a period, as 
fatigue may actually destroy the gain made at first. She 
therefore explains this fact to the pupils and says that she 
will help them by controlling the recitation or changing 
the work as soon as they show signs of falling below their 
standard. She makes a practice of commending their 
efforts when she relieves them of responsibility, and holds 
out to them the prospect of gradually increasing the length 
of time during which they are able to control themselves 
.in courteous, businesslike discussion. The result is that 
pupils become interested in their own progress, keep their 
self-control time record, frequently say: "Please try us 
ten minutes longer to-day," and show strong disapproval 
of any members who spoil the class record. 

The teacher admits that this method requires much 
harder work, on the part of the teacher, than that of rigidly 
controlling all recitations, but she feels that her pupils 



CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 5 1 

are gaining much in ability to think and speak and in self- 
control. 

Problem 34. — A high school teacher receives an anonymous 
letter saying that some of the boys in his class have been betting 
on football games. He keeps all the boys after school, reads 
them the letter, and asks what they know about the matter. 
Nobody speaks. Then he asks each boy in turn whether he 
knows anything about it. The first boy says he has nothing 
to say, and all the others follow suit. The teacher then says : 
" You are getting yourselves into serious trouble by refusing to 
answer my question " ; but there is no response except some 
sneers and ugly looks. As the principal is absent, the teacher 
orders the boys to report at the office before school the next day. 

That evening he calls on the principal, shows the letter, 
and tells the story. The principal thanks him for trying 
to settle the matter and especially for taking the trouble 
to report it in person, without waiting until morning. Then 
he says: "The most serious factor in the case is that the 
boys are now banded together, ready to die in defense of a 
principle. They think that you were trying to make them 
give information which would lead to the detection of the 
guilty ones. That has made them hostile as a body toward 
you, and this feeling has probably obscured in their minds 
all condemnation of the gamblers, although some of them 
had probably disapproved of the gambHng before the other 
issue arose. To boys of this age, telling on another is the 
worst offense in the calendar." 

The teacher is offended and suggests that the principal 
is defending the boys and blaming him. "Oh, no!" says 
the principal. "You did a perfectly natural thing. I 
should probably have done exactly the same if I had not 
worked with boys so long that I know some of their pecu- 
liarities. The important thing now is to straighten these 



52 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

boys out and safeguard the school. You naturally thought 
that the boys would look on the matter as you do. The 
fact is that they do not. There is no use in saying that 
they ought to do so. We are educating boys and we must 
act in accordance with boy nature. Approached in one 
way, boys are chivalrous and loyal to the best ideals. 
Approached in a way which is contrary to their code, they 
can be as unyielding as any martyr." 

The next morning when the boys and the teacher are 
assembled in the office, the principal says: ''Boys, Mr. J. 
has told me about the letter which he received yesterday 
and about his trouble with you. As the letter is not signed, 
he could not call upon the writer to give his evidence for 
the charge against the good name of the school, so naturally 
he took the matter to you. He was surprised and hurt 
because he thought you had refused to help, but I have 
explained to him that you did not understand him and he 
did not understand you. He and I agree on this matter. 
If the charge is false, we want to know it. It will be repeated 
and will probably get into the newspapers. If we have 
your assurance that it is not true, we can deny it and chal- 
lenge anyone to produce any evidence in support of it. 
If it is true, we count upon you to put a stop to the practice 
and to see that the smirch on the reputation of the school 
is wiped out. We do not want to know which of you are 
guilty, but we want you as a class to see that any money 
which has changed hands is returned, and we want your 
assurance that you will not permit any boy to remain a 
member of the class who persists in gambling. Now you 
may go to the classroom and settle the matter. We will 
wait here until you send your spokesman to report." 



CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 53 

At the end of a half hour, one of the boys comes to the 
of&ce and reports that two members of the class won a 
dollar each from boys in another school, that they have 
promised to return the money, and that all the boys have 
agreed not to gamble as long as they are members of the 
school. 

Principles Relating to Child Nature and Habit 
Formation 

1. Child nature is complex and can be understood only by 
careful study and close observation. 

2. Instinctive behavior, accompanying selfish desire, anger, 
jealousy, fear, etc., can be changed only by patient effort. 

3. The standards of adults, especially of adult women, cannot 
be appreciated readily by the young boy. 

4. The ideas, prejudices, and interests peculiar to childhood 
must not be ignored or despised by the teacher. 

5. A calm, sympathetic treatment of a child's difficulties 
will accomplish far more than impatience. 

6. The satisfaction of doing well is often a more potent influence 
upon conduct than shame or discomfort. 

7. In the early stages of the formation of a habit, action must 
be repeated by the learner at frequent intervals, and any 
inconsistent action must be avoided. 

8. Consistent action by the teacher is necessary for the forma- 
tion or maintenance of habits. 

9. In attempting to establish or change a habit, the interest 
of the learner is important. Therefore the period during 
which he is put to the test should be limited by his power 
of attention. 

10. In attempting to root out a bad habit, it is often more 
effective to develop a good one which opposes it than to 
concentrate attention upon the bad one. 

11. A habit can be formed or changed much more readily by 
cooperation than by the individual effort of the teacher. 

12. Habits established in conformity to ideals are likely to be 
more permanent than those established by fear. 



54 problems of discipline 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 35. — A girl of ordinary ability is very self-conscious 
and aspires to excel. She is jealous of an abler girl who usually 
gets higher marks and is much more popular. The first girl 
disparages the other, saying that she is a snob and a teacher's 
pet; refuses ostentatiously to speak to her. She reports at 
home that the teachers are unfair. 

Problem 36. — A high school girl is " boy crazy." She dresses 
elaborately and is continually patting and smoothing her hair. 
She annoys the teachers and distracts attention by smiling and 
whispering to boys who sit near her in class. She is very con- 
spicuous in the corridors and always manages to be on the point 
of starting for home when certain boys come out, after school. 
Her school work deteriorates. Some of the teachers think the 
case is serious. 

Problem 37. — Two boys have a fight on the way to school. 
One of the girls tells the teacher. 

Problem 38. — In a second grade, one pupil tells of an interest- 
ing experience. Another emulates him, telling a highly improb- 
able story. The teacher asks: "Is that true?" He insists 
that it is, and sticks to his story in spite of all that she can do. 

Problem 39. — A boy is called to account for frequent misbe- 
havior. He promises to do better and is reinstated in his class 
with the understanding that if he misbehaves again he will be 
suspended. For several days he is on his good behavior and then 
falls from grace. When reminded of his promise, he says he 
forgot. 

Problem 40. — A sixth-grade boy who is older and larger than 
the other members of his class has become a " buUy." 

Problem 41. — Miss B. sees a boy in disorder and asks for an 
explanation. He replies : " Someone is throwing things at me." 
" Do you know who did it? " she asks. "Yes, but I won't 
tell," is his answer. 



CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 55 

Problem 42. — A primary teacher notices that the children 
have developed a habit of running to her with "tales" about 
their classmates. She knows that she has been unconsciously 
allowing "tattling" to gain headway. The chief offenders 
seem to be some of her "best" pupils. She realizes that the 
matter needs attention. 

Problem 43. — A teacher inspects the reading books of her 
class which have been in use only a few weeks and finds them 
incredibly soiled and torn. She has spoken several times about 
the need of taking good care of the new books. Evidently her 
words have had no effect. 

Problem 44. — A teacher is dissatisfied with the manner in 
which certain pupils recite. They speak in tones scarcely 
audible to him and the class. They address him alone and feel 
no responsibility for the interest and instruction of classmates. 
The teacher attempts to persuade them to speak louder and to 
the class, by explaining that it is discourteous not to make 
one's self heard. Finally he says that anyone who fails to make 
himself heard will be told to sit down, and will be marked 
" zero." The result is that these pupils are ignored and fail 
in the term's work. 

Problem 45. — An English teacher tries to create a feeling for 
the correct usage " It isn't." The expression is used correctly 
in the classroom. On her way to school she overhears the con- 
versation of a group of her girls and all her pride vanishes as she 
hears " It ain't." She feels that the odds are against her and 
that, unless home surroundings and other associations supple- 
ment her efforts for correct usage, the task is hopeless, so she 
lets the matter drift. 

Problem 46. — A class is very much interested in " Ivanhoe " 
and many times the brighter pupils eagerly wave their hands as 
a slow pupil recites. The teacher has frequently requested the 
pupils not to wave their hands, jump out of their seats, or in 
any way embarrass the pupil reciting. The request is frequently 
forgotten in their eagerness to tell, until a frown, a sharp word, 
or a domineering manner brings silence, kills ardor, and brings 
class work practically to a standstill. The teacher visualizes 



56 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

a prim orderly classroom where each pupil is at his best. She 
desires spontaneity, and quick thinking, and she is not get- 
ting either. 

Problem 47. — Pupils of an eighth grade which has been con- 
sidered careless and lazy as a class are advised by their teacher 
to call a meeting to discuss plans for improvement. They talk 
freely, have good ideas, and show genuine desire to reform. At 
the end of a week, absolutely no improvement is noticeable. 

Problem 48. — A child is brought to the kindergarten by his 
mother. He is very timid, clings to her hand, and when she 
starts to leave him, screams in terror and resists all efforts to 
pacify him, until the mother takes him home. She cannot 
get him to go to school again, and appeals to the teacher. 

Problem 49. — A teacher, noticing that one of the pupils is 
not paying attention during the reading lesson, calls on him 
suddenly. He is confused, hesitates, and begins to read in the 
wrong place. The teacher says : " Go to sleep again. Helen 
may read." The boy flushes and slinks into his seat. 

Problem 50. — A teacher is dissatisfied with the work of her 
class in spelling and announces that every misspelled word must 
be rewritten twenty times. This does not have much effect. 

Problem 51. — A class makes a poor showing in fire drill. 
Pupils move too slowly and there is a good deal of talking and 
laughing. The teacher criticizes the performance, emphasizes 
the importance of the drill, and warns the pupils to be on the 
alert the next time. The class seems to be impressed, but at 
the next drill, three weeks later, does Httle better. 

REFERENCES 

La Rue, D. L., Psychology for Teachers. 

Thomdike, E. L., Educational Psychology, Briefer Course, Part I. 

Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapters IV, DC. 

Earhart, L. B., Tj^es of Teaching, Chapter II. 

Sechrist, Education and the General Welfare, Chapters XIII, XIV. 

Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, Chapter IV. 

Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. 

Engleman, J. 0., Moral Education in School and Home, Chapter IH. 



CHAPTER IV 

PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

The Child's Attitude, Self-Direction, Ideals 

Problem 52. — A boy defaces the school building by writing 
on the plaster walls. On entering the school, the teacher ob- 
serves a group of children examining the scrawl. A boy re- 
marks jokingly: ''That loots like your writing, Tom." Tom 
repHes : " Sure, it's my writing." 

The teacher asks him if he really did it, and he says 
again: ^'Sure." ''Aren't you ashamed of yourself!" she 
exclaims angrily. "Go to the office and report to Mr. 
Brown what you have done." 

The principal insists on his making a public apology. 
The boy refuses at first but when the principal starts to 
write a letter to his father, he consents rather than take 
the inevitable whipping. When called upon to make his 
apology, he mumbles a few words and slinks sullenly into 
his seat. The teacher overhears some of the boys talking 
about the matter. One says: "He was a fool to tell. 
They wouldn't have caught him if he had kept still." In 
a day or two, there is more writing on the walls but all 
efforts to discover the offender are fruitless. The deface- 
ment continues until teachers or monitors are placed on 
guard, so that pupils are never without supervision. 

One of the teachers. Miss B., is greatly distressed by the 
situation. She detests the police work and feels that it is 
having a bad effect upon her class. After a time, she de- 

57 



58 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

cides to discuss the matter with her pupils. She explains 
her desire to be relieved of the necessity of doing guard 
duty, saying that it makes her appear distrustful of the 
pupils, whereas she knows that they are perfectly capable 
of taking care of themselves. She suggests that if the 
members of the class are wilHng to take the responsibiHty 
for their conduct when she is not present, she will ask the 
principal to excuse her from the duty of watching them. 
The class seems to welcome the suggestion, but one of the 
pupils objects that, if there should be any marking of the 
walls, this class would be blamed. ''But the other pupils 
will not be left alone," says the teacher, ''so if we take care 
of ourselves, there will be no trouble." 

The pupil is not convinced. "They can't watch all the 
time," he argues. "When somebody is trying to prevent 
you from doing something, it makes you want to do it. 
Old Jones is always watching his orchard and complaining 
to the poHceman, but the boys keep swiping his apples; 
it's such fun to fool him. All the fellows are looking for a 
chance to mark the walls and they'll do it pretty soon." 

"I see," says the teacher, "but suppose our class should 
propose that the whole school adopt my scheme. Do you 
think that the other classes would agree to do their part?" 

"I think so," replies the boy, "but I don't know about 
Tom and his crowd. They are sore because he had to 
apologize." 

"Well," says the teacher, "let us think it over. We 
needn't say anything about it to anyone else until we 
decide what to do." 

She then goes to the principal, explains her own point of 
view, and reports the class discussion. He listens with in- 



child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 59 

terest until she has finished her statement and then says : 
"I have been thinking about the matter a great deal. It 
is clear that we have not handled it properly, and a bad 
spirit has grown up, but I have been puzzled as to the best 
way to overcome it. I like the idea of having your class 
take the lead, but first I must see if I can change Tom's 
attitude. That forced apology was a blunder. Indeed, 
I have come to the conclusion that, unless an apology is 
voluntary and sincere, it is worse than useless." 

At the first convenient opportunity, the principal says 
to the boy : "Tom, you remember the trouble that we had 
a Httle while ago." The boy nods. "Well, there is one 
thing that I want you to know, and that is that I respect 
you for owning up when nobody knew who did the damage. 
It was a square thing to do. And there is one thing that 
I want to understand myself. Why were you so unwilling 
to apologize?" The boy hesitates but finally says : "Be- 
cause you wanted to make a fool of me before the school." 
"So that was it," says the principal. "Well, since you 
felt that way about it, I am very sorry that I made you 
apologize. You had injured the building which belongs 
to all of us, so I thought you ought to apologize to all of us. 
If you had felt about it as I thought you ought to feel, you 
would not have been making a fool of yourself but setting 
yourself right before the school. But there was no use in 
saying the words if you didn't mean them, so I am sorry 
that I forced you to do it. 

Now I think I know a much better plan than the one 
we are using for preventing injury to the building, but we 
shall need your help. It is absurd to make teachers act as 
policemen. They can't prevent injury if pupils really 



6o PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

want to cause damage. But why should pupils want to 
do so ? It is their building and I should like to have them 
take charge of it. Do you think they can?" 

^'Yes, if they want to," is the boy's answer. 

*'Will you help?" asks the teacher. 

"Yes," is the half-hearted reply. 

Miss B.'s class prepares a letter to the principal, asking 
that the pupils be permitted the same freedom as before 
the trouble, provided they agree to take care of the build- 
ing. The letter is read at an assembly of the upper grades, 
and the principal requests each class to discuss the matter 
and to write him a letter stating whether the class wishes 
to have the proposal adopted. All the classes vote ap- 
proval and each appoints a committee to have oversight 
of its room and a delegate to a school committee which is 
to see that the building outside the classrooms receives 
proper care. Tom is made a member of the committee. 

Problem 53. 

LINCOLN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

OFFICE OF THE PRINCIPAL 

NOTICE TO TEACHERS 

THE SUBJECT OF THE NEXT TEACHERS' MEETING WILL BE 

CONDUCT DURING INTERMISSION PERIODS 

Mr. Evans will report on his day of observation in the H- 



School, where pupils pass from one recitation room to another 
without supervision and without forming in files. He recom- 
mends that we adopt the same plan. Come prepared to dis- 
cuss this proposal. 

Edw. B. Jackson 
Principal 



CHILD'S ATTITUDE, SELF-DIRECTION, IDEALS 6 1 

Mr. Evans speaks as follows: ''What I noticed especially 
was the fine spirit. I arrived just as the pupils were passing 
from one recitation room to another. I was surprised to 
see that there were no files and many were talking and laugh- 
ing. I assumed that the teacher in charge of this part of 
the building must be absent from his post. I asked where 
I could find the principal and was directed to the ofiice on 
the second floor. As I went up the stairway, pupils stepped 
aside courteously to allow me to pass but showed no embar- 
rassment, giving the impression that the condition which 
had surprised me was not unusual. As I reached the head 
of the stairs, I was prepared to greet the teacher who would 
naturally be there, but no teacher was in sight. As I 
walked along, glancing through the doors, I saw teachers 
talking with pupils, writing on the blackboards, or seated 
at their desks. None of them acted as if he belonged any- 
where else. Evidently they were not expected to supervise 
pupils during the intermission. 

This was at first a real shock. It had never occurred to 
me that such an arrangement was possible. As the idea 
penetrated my mind, I stopped instinctively and looked for 
the inevitable 'rough-house.' To my amazement there 
were no signs of it. The pupils all seemed to know where 
they were going and were on their way in what would have 
seemed a perfectly natural manner if they had not been in 
school. 'Probably there are monitors' I thought, but I 
saw none. I noticed a few cases of ' fooling ' but not enough 
to overcome the mental 'jolt' which this new phenomenon 
had given me. In a minute or two the corridors were empty, 
the bells rang for the next recitation, and the building was 
quiet. 



62 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

As soon as I had introduced myself to the principal, I 
asked about the monitors. ' We do not believe in monitors,' 
said he. 'Then how do you get such good order?' I 
asked. 'If our teachers should stay in their classrooms 
during intermission periods, we should have running and 
pushing and unKmited noise.' 'It takes time to make the 
change,' he replied. 'We always had filing under the 
supervision of teachers until two years ago, but we had to 
deal constantly with infractions of discipline and teachers 
were harassed by the duty of controlHng pupils when they 
ought to have been relaxing a bit between classes. Worst 
of all, pupils were getting no valuable training which would 
be of use outside the school. We discussed the matter 
thoroughly with the pupils and then tried out the present 
plan. We had trouble for some time, partly from pupils 
and partly from teachers, who could not overcome their 
fixed ideas and to whom anything but marching in file 
without talking was disorder. However, the school as a 
whole liked the new plan and gradually became used to it. 
Now we rarely have cases of real disorder. We are all 
proud of our school and what it stands for. One of our 
ideals is ability to take care of myself so as not to interfere 
with the rights or comfort of other sJ 

The idea took hold of me at once. I caught myself 
thinking about it as I sat in the recitation rooms, and by 
the time I reached home, I had transformed our own school 
— in my mind's eye. Why shouldn't we adopt the plan? " 

The report precipitates a vigorous discussion. Some 
teachers support the recomniendation, but many offer 
objections. One says: ''It would never work with our 
pupils. Can you imagine what Ed. Murphy and the 



child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 63 

Romelli boy would do if we left them to take care of them- 
selves?'' This brings an appreciative laugh. Another 
says : ^'I know a teacher who was in that school last year. 
She says the plan is just a fad of the principal's, the teachers 
don't like it, and she herself was so disgusted that she 
couldn't stay." A third remarks: ''They tried a scheme 
like that in a school in my home town, and it was such a 
failure that the principal was dismissed, and the school 
board appointed a man who had the reputation of being a 
rigid disciplinarian." 

The teacher who started the argument soon sees that no 
progress is to be made by prolonging it. The teachers are 
taking sides and ignoring arguments which do not support 
their own views. He has set his heart on a trial of the plan 
but realizes that it will be a failure unless it is started under 
favorable conditions, not the least important of which is the 
confidence and support of the teachers. He says: "Per- 
haps I have judged too hastily. Evidently the problem is 
not a simple one. I was so delighted with what I saw the 
other day that I was eager to transform our school at once, 
but I see now that we should be inviting failure if we should 
make the change without studying the matter carefully 
and profiting by experience elsewhere. I suggest that a 
committee be appointed to study the matter. Let other 
teachers visit the school which impressed me so much. If 
they go on different days, the combined observations ought 
to settle the question as to whether the plan is really work- 
ing well, or whether I saw the school under exceptional 
conditions. We ought to have also all the facts about the 
other experiments which have been mentioned in our dis- 
cussion. In what respects have the successful trials dif- 



64 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

fered from the failures? What are the causes of the 
failures? Were the same conditions met in the successful 
cases? If so, how were they overcome?" 

The suggestion is accepted and the committee appointed. 
Letters are written to principals and teachers who are 
known to have had experience with a plan of unsupervised 
movement of pupils outside the classrooms, and visits are 
made to other schools. Several weeks later the committee 
reports as follows : 

"We first visited the H School whose plan was de- 
scribed at the last meeting. We are able to confirm the 
report made then. The plan is working well in that school. 
We saw a few cases which might be regarded as disorder, 
but not nearly as many as in other schools in which pupils 
were always under supervision and passing in file. We 
were all impressed with the attitude of the pupils. They 
seem to have learned to take care of themselves and to take 
pride in their ability to do so. We asked one of the boys 
about it. He turned out to be a newcomer, having moved 
into town within a month. He said: *It seemed funny 
at first. We always marched in file where I came from, but 
when I saw the way the other fellows did I soon caught 
on. Somehow you don't feel so much like rough-housing, 
when nobody is looking for trouble. ' 

We then visited another school which was reported to 
have a similar plan in force. In this case, we were not 
favorably impressed. The attitude of the pupils seemed 
different. There was much more noise and less evidence 
of self-control. We saw a good many examples of rudeness 
and some scuffling. There was no movement in file, but 
there were student monitors and we saw teachers admonish- 



child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 65 

ing pupils, although we were told that they were not required 
to exercise any responsibility. 

Next we paid another visit to the H School and 

asked the principal some questions which had been sug- 
gested by our visits and by the letters which we had re- 
ceived in reply to our inquiries. Following are the ques- 
tions and his replies : 

1. Is there anything peculiar in the home training or 
previous experience of your pupils, which accounts for their 
response to the plan in operation ? 

^ I think not. This is an average high school, as far as 
the personnel of its students is concerned.' 

2. How do you account for the difference in attitude and 
behavior between your own students and those of other 
schools where the plan has not succeeded? 

^ There are probably several reasons. One of them may 
be a difference in preparation. We discussed the matter 
very thoroughly in our teachers' meetings, in assembly, 
and in the classrooms, before we tried it. We did not 
try to force it, but waited until the great majority of pupils 
and teachers were eager to begin. 

Another reason may be in the attitude of the teachers. 
We realize that the plan involves a hard test for youngsters 
and that they need help and encouragement. The great- 
est difficulty at first was due to teachers who persisted in 
taking matters out of the hands of the pupils, and who 
were always watching for trouble and discipHning the 
offenders. Pupils respond to suggestion readily. They 
know now that we have confidence in them. We encourage 
them and when something goes wrong, take them into 
counsel and help them to correct the trouble. 

E. T. PROB. 5 



66 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

Another difference may be in the understanding of the 
plan. Some failures are due to an attempt to deal with it 
as a mechanical scheme, whereas it is really a matter of 
ideals. The essential point is not absence of teachers or 
informahty of movement. It is desire in the minds of the 
pupils to depend upon themselves. The other features 
naturally follow. 

Perhaps the chief difference is due to the importance 
which teachers attach to the purpose aimed at. We believe 
that one of the most important duties of the school is to 
develop ideals and habits which are needed in the good 
citizen. One of these is to attend to one's own affairs 
without interfering with other people. From this point of 
view, the question was not the adoption of this scheme or 
that, but, 'How can we train pupils to be self-directing?' 
We have taken this training to be a definite responsibility, 
a test of our success. Therefore we have met the various 
difficulties which have arisen not as signs that pupils can- 
not be made responsible for their own conduct, but as 
factors in our problem which must be studied.' " 

"We recommend" — the committee continues — "that 

the plan as carried out in the H School be adopted, 

provided that, after discussion, at least four fifths of the 
teachers approve. If approved, we recommend that the 
subject be taken up carefully with the pupils in a series of 
assembhes, followed by discussions in class meetings. We 

suggest that a committee of pupils visit the H School, 

talk with the pupils there, and then tell our school what 
they have seen and heard. We recommend that the plan 
be put in operation when a large majority of the pupils 
show a strong desire for it." 



CHILD^S ATTITUDE, SELF-DIRECTION, IDEALS 67 

Problem 54, — In marking a set of examination papers, a 
teacher notices a peculiar mistake and, a little later, she finds 
exactly the same error in another paper. She therefore compares 
the two papers and finds that parts of them are almost identical. 
The similarity is too perfect to be accidental and, since the 
abler student sits in front of the other, she is forced to con- 
clude that both have shared in the deception. 

In accordance with her usual practice, she marks both 
papers "zero" and notifies the two pupils to see her at the 
close of school. When confronted with the evidence, one 
admits that, at the request of the other, she passed back 
the sheets as she finished them. She protests against the 
mark given her and, when told that a person who helps 
another to cheat is just as guilty as the cheater, she says 
it isn't fair, that she would have been considered a snob 
if she had refused the request. The other girl says that 
she copied only a small part of the paper and she ought 
not to be marked "zero." The teacher says that cheating 
is a grave offense and that, in addition to the mark, there 
will be a severe penalty. To this the pupil retorts that 
lots of the pupils do the same thing and she doesn't see 
anything very bad about it. Her brother has told her how 
the students fool their professors at college. 

Our teacher sees that punishment alone will not change 
the girls' attitude, and she fears that they are right in their 
estimate of class sentiment. She feels the need of reflec- 
tion upon the problem, so she tells the girls to think the 
matter over and they will discuss it further the next day. 
She detests cheating, but she knows that there was plenty 
of it when she was in school, and she recognizes that little 
wiU be accomplished by merely punishing the occasional 
cases, which are managed so crudely as to make detection 



68 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

easy. So long as class sentiment tolerates cheating, drastic 
punishment will probably make pupils more wary. She 
must find a way to make cheating contemptible in the eyes 
of the students. 

She decides that she ought first to understand the pupils' 
point of view, so she invites a few of the clear-headed mem- 
bers of the class to meet her, explains that she has dis- 
covered some cases of cheating and wants to know what the 
class think about it. Most of the pupils say that they 
don't cheat themselves, but nobody thinks much about it 
because it is so common. They agree that a pupil who re- 
fuses to loan his paper or whisper the answer when asked 
to do so is considered a ''goody-goody." Some of the 
cheating is just for the fun of fooling the teacher. 

She then takes the problem up with the class. She asks 
if anyone knows of a case when a baseball game was won 
by cheating. Some cases are described. "Does our 
team know those tricks?" she asks. "They know them 
but they wouldn't use them," answers a boy. "But why 
not? There might be a close game, when, by cheating a 
Kttle the game would be saved." "But we'd feel mean. 
We'd rather lose," he protests. "Everybody would say 
that we couldn't win fairly." " But suppose nobody knew 
except the player who cheated." "Well, if we found him 
out, we'd kick him off the team, and if we didn't, he'd 
kick himself, if he is any sort of a fellow. He'd know he 
was yellow, and all of our fellows are good sports." "How 
about other games," she asks, "tennis or cards?" The 
class agrees that the principle is the same — no fun in win- 
ning unless you do it fairly. 

"Well, do you feel the S9,nie way about cheating in 



child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 69 

school?" No answer. "If you were working for a prize, 
would you be satisfied to get it by cheating? " There is a 
general shaking of heads. One pupil says: "That would 
be just like playing a game." "But it is different to cheat 
the teacher, I suppose." The class looks a Httle em- 
barrassed and somewhat puzzled. Finally one says: "It 
does seem different. You see the teacher is there to stop 
cheating. She isn't in the same class with you." "I see," 
says the teacher. "Cheating her is like stealing apples. 
It is rather exciting because you may be caught, and it is 
good fun to fool the older person, when it would be mean 
to cheat against one of your own number." Several pupils 
nod. Others look doubtful. "Now what is the teacher try- 
ing to do ? " she goes on. "To help us to learn," someone 
says. " So when you cheat her, you are trying to beat her 
in her efforts to help you. Who is really being cheated, 
do you think?" "We are," answer several. "Now see 
here, boys and girls. I really want to help you to succeed. 
If you deceive me, making me believe that you know more 
than you do, it is rather stupid, isn't it? I can understand 
the fun of fooling the teacher when she is trying to catch 
someone, but it seems rather mean as well as stupid to fool 
her if she is just trying to help you. I think we ought to 
work together, don't you?" They nod. "And wouldn't 
you feel prouder of the class if it should stand for no cheat- 
ing, for earning honestly what you get?" 

There is general assent. 

The teacher writes on the board : " We stand for fair play 
and honest work." " Shall we make that our class motto ? " 
she asks. "Those who want to vote for it say 'Aye'; 
those opposed, 'No.' It is a unanimous vote." 



70 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

Problem 55. — A high school teacher is the faculty member of 
a literary society, membership in which is highly prized. New 
members are admitted by majority vote. Candidates for ad- 
mission are required to read an original composition. At one 
of the meetings, the son of a junk dealer whose manners and per- 
sonal appearance have made him unpopular, reads an essay 
which is far superior to any of the others. When the votes 
are counted, it is found that three candidates have been elected, 
but the unpopular boy lacks several votes of receiving a ma- 
jority. 

One of the members immediately protests, saying that 
C.'s composition was the best, and appealing to the teacher's 
judgment. She says that, in her opinion, the essay was 
one of the best pieces of work by a high school student 
that she has ever heard. Then someone moves that 
another vote be taken. The motion is carried although 
many of the students refrain from voting. When the 
ballots are counted, the result is found to be the same 
as before. The boy who made the protest now declares 
that he will not be a member of a snobbish society and starts 
to leave the room. The teacher interposes, saying that it 
will injure the club and the school if the matter is allowed 
to rest with a decision which some of the members consider 
unjust. She suggests that the action taken be rescinded 
and that the election be postponed to a special meeting, 
thus giving time for careful consideration. This plan is 
adopted and the rest of the day's program is carried out. 

During the next few days, several pupils come voluntarily 
to discuss the matter with the teacher, and she consults 
others on her own initiative. One pupil says : "C. would 
spoil the society. He is so unbearably conceited, he would 
talk all the time just as he does in class." Another argues : 
"He isn't really smart. He just works all the time. He 



child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 71 

has probably been working on that composition for a month 
just to force himself in." Another says: "You can't snub 
him. He never seems to know when he isn't wanted." 
Another member declares: "He isn't clean. If fellows 
like C. are coming into this club, I shall resign." 

The teacher thinks the matter over with care. She 
feels that, in justice to the boy, he ought to be admitted 
but she is aware that the descriptions of his disagreeable 
personal characteristics are based on fact. She must try 
to help him to overcome them. She considers the possi- 
bility of insisting on his admission and even refusing to 
remain a member of the society unless this is done, but 
on reflection she sees that such action would merely be 
dodging the chief problem. She will have to try to lead 
these boys and girls to adopt sound ideals in their relation- 
ships with other people. 

At the special meeting the teacher says: "Before we 
vote again for new members, I think we ought to settle 
some questions about the aims of the society. My first 
question is this : ' Is the chief purpose of the club to give 
pleasure to the members or has it some more important 
purpose?'" Several views are expressed, among them: 
"To help us to write better." "To help us to understand 
and enjoy good Kterature." "To develop Hterary abihty 
in the school." 

"What should be the conditions of membership?" she 
asks next. Various answers are given, most of them equiv- 
alent to "abiUty to write well." One says : "It won't do 
to admit members who don't fit in." Nodding of heads 
indicates that this appeals to most of the members. 
"Why?" asks the teacher. "Because we won't care so 



72 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

much for the club and we won't do as good work, unless we 
work together. If we take in people who don't fit, there 
will be two parties instead of a team." 

''Would it be wise to admit members who haven't much 
abiHty or interest in writing, because they are congenial?" 
The general sentiment is negative. "Why?" ''Because 
nobody would take pride in being a member. People want 
to get in because they have to work for it." 

"Would it be a good thing to have it understood in the 
school that some people could not hope to become members, 
no matter how well they might write?" This causes a 
good deal of discussion. One member says that if social 
standing were considered, the club would get the reputation 
of being snobbish, that in a public school everybody ought 
to have a chance. 

The teacher then says : "We are facing one of the great 
problems which every democratic organization has to meet. 
We believe in a general way that everyone ought to have 
the same chance, but naturally we have dislikes and prej- 
udices. It is easy to form into classes or groups, but if we 
do so, the groups do not understand each other and soon 
come to dislike each other. Then we have antagonism 
instead of cooperation. Some of the wisest men have 
thought about this problem and nobody has solved it, be- 
cause it is human nature to be more interested in one's 
self and one's friends than in the other fellow. One of 
these wise men has proposed an ideal for the members of 
a democratic organization which I like best of all that I 
have read. It is that each member should feel an interest 
in helping another to make the best of himself. He may 
not wish to be like the other fellow, but he will not despise 



CHILD'S ATTITUDE, SELF-DIRECTION, IDEALS 73 

him or try to prevent his success. He will try to help 
him to overcome his difficulties and to do his best. 

Now how can we solve this problem for our society? 
We want our organization to be of the greatest possible 
value to the school. We want to do all that we can to 
encourage those who have the capacity for good literary 
work to develop it. We don't want to shut the door 
against anyone who has literary talent, and yet we must 
have members who can work together heartily if we are 
to do our best work. Have you any suggestions?'^ 

One member says : "It seems rather silly for thirty people 
to be afraid of one. If we really take an interest in the 
new member and admire his work, we can probably help 
him to change the things which make people dislike him. 
He will have to overcome them some time, or he won't 
be able to make the best of himself. It would be a fine 
thing if our club could help to set him right." Another 
says : "Why not have an understanding with new members 
that, besides meeting the literary test, members of the club 
must be good club members and work well with the rest? 
We might admit candidates who pass the literary test but 
riot make them full members until they have shown abiHty 
to work well with the crowd." 

Principles Relating to the Child's Attitude 

1. The teacher should aim to have the child understand and 
become interested in the purpose of a requirement. 

2. Confidence in the good will and ability of pupils is stimu- 
lating to effort. Distrust often has the opposite effect. 

3. The teacher should aim to develop self -direction. 

4. Restrictions upon voluntary individual action should be 
made only when the welfare of the individual or of the 
group clearly makes this necessary. Social behavior does 



74 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

not develop where children merely follow commands. A 
sense of responsibility cannot grow unless there is oppor- 
tunity for exercising it. 

5. In attempting to place responsibility upon pupils, care 
should be taken not to give them more than they can carry 
successfully. Failure is discouraging. Success is stimu- 
lating. 

6. In attempting to correct a fault, the teacher should be 
careful not to discourage a valuable attitude which is asso- 
ciated with it. 

7. The teacher must be careful not to misjudge a pupil's 
motive. 

8. An enforced apology is valueless. It is usually prompted 
by a desire to humiliate the offender. It does not change 
his attitude, except for the worse. 

9. Voluntary conformity to standards of the group is a more 
valuable social attitude than response to a stronger per- 
sonality or acquiescence through fear of consequences. 

10. Many offenses are more effectively handled through . ap- 
peal to public sentiment than through attempts to catch 
and punish the culprit. 

11. Pupils should learn to help one another. The development 
of individuals may be made a class problem. 

12. Probably the most important duty of the teacher is the 
cultivation of ideals in the minds of the pupils. Habits 
developed by external control are apt to break down when 
conditions change. Ideals, sincerely held, may have a 
permanent influence. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 56. — A boy in Miss A.'s class is whipped by two boys 
in a higher grade. The whipping took place on the school 
grounds. The next day, Miss A. sends for the two boys and ques- 
tions them. Their only reply is : "I don't know." After de- 
taining them after school for four days, they still refuse to talk. 
Miss A. feels that if she lets them go without an explanation, 
they will boast that they have "put it over on her." She is 
anxious to settle the matter without appealing to higher 
authority. 



child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 75 

Problem 57. — In a sixth-grade class, there is a boy whom the 
teacher suspects of smoking and other bad habits. His attitude 
in the classroom is apparently satisfactory, but she knows that 
his influence upon the other boys is harmful. Discussions of 
the dangers of evil companionship seem to bring no good result. 

Problem 58. — At a teachers' meeting at the beginning of a 
school year, it is suggested that teachers give special attention 
to the problem of developing initiative and power of self-direc- 
tion. The principal remarks that this concerns only teachers 
of the third grade and above, as little children must obviously 
be controlled by adults. He thinks that in the kindergarten 
and first two grades, the task of the teachers is to develop habits 
of obedience. Some of the teachers of these grades protest 
that even the youngest children can learn to be self -directing in 
many ways. The principal says : " You will have to prove it 
to me. You may have a free hand for this term, but I want 
to see results." 

Problem 59. — A boy mimics the teacher, repeating her words 
in a tone audible to most of the children. The teacher hears 
him and is very angry. She sends him to the principal with a 
note saying that he has been unbearably impudent and she will 
not have him in her class until he has apologized publicly. 

Problem 60. — A young teacher visits the class of an experi- 
enced teacher. The latter has the practice of dismissing her 
class by giving commands, thus : " Girls, one." Girls are 
expected to turn in their seats. " Two." Girls rise and face 
the rear. " Three." Girls pass to the coat room. " Boys, 
one," etc. The visiting teacher has had a less formal method 
of dismissal but is interested in the plan observed and puts it 
into effect in her own classroom. At the next visit of the super- 
intendent, he asks the reason for the change. She is surprised 
because she had expected to make a good impression. He asks 
her to think the matter over and tell him which method is best 
and why. 

Problem 61. — A teacher prepares for an examination by 
having textbooks brought to the front of the room, and an- 
nouncing that anyone who is caught looking at another paper 



76 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE 

or communicating with anyone else will be required to put his 
paper in the waste basket. He patrols the room during the 
examination and destroys the paper of a pupil who signals to 
another for the purpose of borrowing an eraser. Nevertheless 
some pupils succeed in cheating. 

Problem 62. — A boy of thirteen hates school, plays truant 
occasionally, and makes little effort. 

Problem 63. — A new high school building soon shows evidence 
of deterioration. Desks are scratched and cut, varnish is worn 
off chair rails, furniture is broken, and walls are badly soiled. 
The principal asks the teachers to make an earnest effort to 
solve the problem. 

Problem 64. — A child is habitually dirty and unkempt, is 
sullen and uncommunicative. Other children avoid him. 

Problem 65. — A senior class in the high school has been di- 
vided into debating teams. On the day preceding the first 
debate, the teacher overhears a girl say : " We've got to win 
this debate ; I made a bet of a soda with Helen." The teacher 
realizes that she has the desired interest on the part of the de- 
bating class, but she is dismayed at the outcome. She is in- 
clined to think that more than one bet has been made. She won- 
ders whether she should ignore the bets, call off the debates, 
give strict command that there is to be no betting, or what? 

Problem 66. — A school song is written by a talented high 
school student and is set to music by the instructor but the 
students show little enthusiasm for it. They deHght in a song 
written by another pupil although the words are doggerel, the 
theme mere boasting, and the language very inferior. The music 
is a popular rag-time tune. They are almost unanimously 
in favor of adopting the second song as the school song and ask 
to have it on the graduation program. The music teacher and 
some of the English teachers realize that they have not succeeded 
in accompHshing purposes which are prominently stated in the 
course of study. 

Problem 67. — During a fire drill children are orderly while 
under the eye of a teacher, but talk when she cannot see them. 



child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 77 

Some push, others loiter. They regard the drill as a routine 
which does not call for any individual responsibility. 

Problem 68. — The subject of class discussion is " Immigra- 
tion." Most of the boys and girls are of American parentage 
but the father of a Polish boy is just taking out naturalization 
papers and another member of the class is an Italian. A 
snobbish attitude is taken by a few of the pupils. A hurt look 
comes into the eyes of the two foreigners but the teacher is the 
only one who notices it. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter XI. 
Earhart, L. B., T3^es of Teaching, Chapter XL 
Bagley, W. C, School Discipline, Chapters I, V, VI, VII, XIV. 
Morehouse, F. M., The Disciphne of the School, Chapter XV. 
Sechrist, F. K., Education and the General Welfare, Chapter XV. 
Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, Chapters III, XXVI. 
Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter XIV. 
Strayer, G. D. and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher. 



CHAPTER V 
PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

Selection of Educational Mateioal; Relation of 
Subject Matter to Educational Purpose; Making 
a Course of Study; How to Test the Value of 
Subject Matter 

Problem 69. — A teacher is at work upon her lesson plans. 
She is about to introduce the class to long division and is puzzling 
over the selection of suitable problems. The textbook presents 
the new process by working out an abstract example. Follow- 
ing this is a large number of similar examples and then several 
pages of problems many of which are quite artificial. The 
teacher feels that this material is not satisfactory but is finding 
it difficult to think of anything better. 

At this point her roommate comes in and ralKes her on 
the seriousness with which she takes this lesson planning. 
She says : ^'What's the use of wasting your evenings trying 
to improve on the textbook? That isn't the teacher's 
business. We have troubles enough managing children 
and getting them to learn what is in the books. I can't 
bother my head to decide what to teach. That is the super- 
intendent's business. If we are told what the children 
are expected to know at the end of the term, we can pound 
it into their heads. Here, look at my plan book. If you 
would make out yours the same way, you would have time 
to get more fun out of Kfe." 

Our teacher opens the book and finds a record like this : 

78 



SELECTION or EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 79 

Reading: Begin page 114, line 9. 
Arithmetic: Problems, page 211. 
History : Chapter V to bottom of page 84. 
Geography : Finish Europe. 
Spelling : Lesson 10. 

"I divide the assignment for the term," the roommate 
adds, '^so as to leave a few weeks for review at the end. 
That's all there is to it." 

"Beautifully simple," observes the first teacher, "but 
is it education ? I can't forget that I have the lives of forty 
children in my hands for a year. I am expected to do my 
part to prepare them for citizenship. Nobody seems to 
know just how this is to be done, but I can't believe that we 
can make citizens by just covering ground in a textbook 
which is written for sale through the whole country and 
without having in mind the specific needs of individual 
children. Doing all these artificial examples doesn't seem 
to fit children to meet situations outside the school. They 
seem to be learning to do things which the school calls 
for without fully comprehending them. Apparently they 
are not getting practical experience and if I am right they 
are wasting valuable time." 

"Well, why should we worry?" retorts the other. "We 
girls can't expect to do better than the 'big bugs' in edu- 
cation, can we?" "No, except perhaps in our own jobs. 
We have one great advantage, I think, and that is that we 
are with the children all the time. We know them indi- 
vidually and know how they respond to the material which 
we teach them. The people who write the textbooks 
have to shoot in the air, so to speak. If we don't adapt 
their material to our own pupils and supplement it by mate- 



8o PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

rial which we collect ourselves for their special use, why 
should it reach the mark?'' 

^'What are you working on now?" asks the roommate. 
"Long division." ''Well, surely that doesn't need any 
adaptation. Long division is just long division. The 
children have just got to learn how to do it and practice 
until they can do it without mistakes. The textbook gives 
you all the practice problems you need, I should think." 

''That's the way it used to look to me," our teacher 
answers, "but I find two difficulties. Some of the children 
don't learn to divide accurately, even with endless practice, 
and others, who learn the process perfectly and delight in it, 
don't seem to know when to use it, especially when the 
problem is of a different sort from those in the book. They 
seem just to be learning a 'stunt' for use in school. They 
aren't interested in finding out something. They are just 
as well satisfied with an absurd answer as a correct one, 
until it is marked wrong." 

"Oh! Children have always been like that and always 
will be," objects the friend. "You are looking for the mil- 
lennium." "No, I'm not," retorts the other. "I don't ex- 
pect perfect work from children, but if long division is really 
suitable material for fourth graders, it must be possible 
for most pupils in that grade to learn to use it practically. 
I notice that the boys in my class who sell papers or help 
their fathers in the store are quick and accurate in making 
change. They seem to acquire, through practical experi- 
ence, a confidence in deahng with situations requiring the 
use of arithmetical processes which our school work does 
not give. I am trying to think of a way of taking up long 
division which will help the children to master it as a tool 



SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 8 1 

as these boys have learned to calculate in their small busi- 
ness experience." 

^' Have you made any progress ? " asks the friend. "Per- 
haps a little. One reason why the boys learn to make 
change so well is probably because they have a strong mo- 
tive. They don't learn to make change as an exercise. 
They have to learn it or they will lose money or irritate 
a customer. If I can think of something which my children 
really want to know and which depends upon long division, 
perhaps they will be more eager to learn the process and 
will do so with a clearer understanding of what it is all 
about than if I use the abstract example in the book." 

"There are plenty of concrete problems in the book," 
suggests the roommate. "But not the kind that I want. 
They are all made up by the author. Nobody would ever 
solve many of them in real life, and none of them are real 
problems for my children in the sense that they want to 
know the answers for their own purposes. Take this one, 
for example: *A man gives a box of 156 apples to 12 boys. 
How many apples will each boy receive ? ' Children won't 
be much excited over that problem. Probably not one of 
them will ever be in such a situation and if it should really 
happen, they would probably distribute the apples one at a 
time and do it more quickly than by counting the boxful 
and using long division." 

"I wonder if fourth-grade children ever have occasion 
to use long division for their own purposes," the room- 
mate queries. "That is just what I have been trying to 
decide," says the first teacher. "As a matter of fact, I 
doubt whether many people have occasion to use the pro- 
cess very frequently. The only occasion that I can think 

E. T. PROS. — 6 



82 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

of when I have used it this fall is in working out averages 
and percentages in my monthly reports." "Do you think 
long division ought to be postponed until later in the 
course?" asks the other. "It is always taught as early 
as the fourth grade. There must be a reason for that." 
"I don't know," is the reply. "It would seem sensible 
to postpone it until children have a need for it, but there 
may be a danger in such a plan. I was talking recently with 
a teacher who taught for several years in a private school, 
where they tried just that scheme. It seemed to work 
splendidly for a time. The children were enthusiastic 
in their interest and became very skillful in thinking out 
and executing their own problems, but in the upper grades, 
when they were nearly ready to enter another school, 
it seemed necessary for them to learn some of the things 
which had been omitted but which they would be expected 
to know. This teacher said she had a terrible time in 
teaching long division. The children found it mere drudg- 
ery. Now, you know, fourth-grade children like to work 
at long division and often work out absurdly long examples 
just for the fun of it. It seems as though there were a 
period when children are interested in such mechanical work 
and can easily master it. If that is so, we ought to take 
advantage of it, but the difficulty is to make it mean any- 
thing to them, to have them think what they are doing 
instead of merely juggle with figures. There ought to be 
some very careful experiments to determine whether it is 
really important that children should learn this abstract 
work far beyond their powers of applying it practically. 
In the meantime, I must teach it and use the best material 
that I can find for making it real." 



SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 83 

"Still I don't see how you are going to find anything 
better than the problems in the book," objects the room- 
mate. "I am going to begin," the first teacher answers, 
"by thinking of what children do and think about in and 
out of school and see if I can find any situations where long 
division would be useful. Then I can bring about the situa- 
tion in class and let the children discover the need of dividing 
and realize that they don't know how. If I can reach that 
point they will be ready to learn the process for a purpose, 
and after they have used it in solving their own problems, 
we can probably carry it further without losing sight of 
its meaning." 

A few days later, the fourth-grade teacher is again at 
work but with a different expression on her face. The 
roommate notices the change and says: "Don't keep me 
in suspense. Evidently the fourth graders have met 
long division. How did it happen?" "Not quite as I 
expected," the other replies. "I had been trying to dis- 
cover a way to make the introduction and, after all, it hap- 
pened accidentally. When I went to school the morning 
after our talk, I found a notice from the principal saying 
that the appropriation for supplies had been exhausted and 
we should have to manage for the rest of the year with those 
already in hand. Immediately after the opening exercises 
I explained the situation to the children and told them 
that unless we were very careful in the use of paper and 
pencils, we should have nothing to work with at the end of 
the term. I asked them what we could do to prevent 
this. Someone said: ^Be careful not to drop pencils and 
break the points.' Another said: 'Be careful not to 
make mistakes and spoil the paper.' Then one, of the 



84 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

children surprised me by saying : ' Let's see how much paper 
there is for each day and then never use any more than that.' 

I saw at once that here was my chance, so ahhough my 
program called for a language lesson, I said 'I think that's 
a fine idea. Shall we do it?' The class was keenly in- 
terested. They were not thinking of arithmetic at all, 
but here was a real problem. 

We divided up the work of counting the supplies, and 
incidentally they discovered that a ream package of paper 
contains five hundred sheets. The children, found that 
we had 3367 sheets of pencil paper. After a good deal of 
puzzling and argument in which I took very little part, 
they decided that they would need to know how many more 
days of school there were. With the help of a calendar, 
they found that there were 47 days. 

Then the question was before us : ' How many sheets can 
we use each day ? ' We decided to think about this until 
the next day and we agreed that it would be fun to find 
out how to do it ourselves instead of asking anyone 
at home to help us. I noticed that some of the children 
were working on the puzzle at odd times during the day. 

The next morning, one of the boys announced that he 
knew pretty nearly how many sheets we could use daily. 
There would be a little more than nine weeks, with five 
school days in each week. If it were exactly nine weeks, 
there would be 374 sheets for each week and that would 
allow the use of 75 sheets a day except on Fridays when 
there would be only 74. After he had explained his plan 
carefully, the class saw that this would be nearly right, but 
if we should use 75 sheets a day, nothing would be left for 
the last two weeks. 



SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 8$ 

The children agreed that the proper daily allowance was 
less than 75 sheets but there were many different opinions 
as to the proper figure. Some thought that 74 sheets would 
be right but most of the class thought that too many. 
'Can you prove that 74 is too many?' I asked. They 
studied this question for a time and several wrong pro- 
posals were made. 

Finally someone who had been working with his pencil 
announced: 'If we use 74 sheets a day, we should need 
3478 sheets for 47 days.' That gave the clue to other 
members of the class and in a few minutes they had dis- 
covered that we could use 71 sheets each day and 30 sheets 
would be left over. 

Our problem was done but we still had to work out the 
daily allowances of paper for ink and drawing paper. I 
said: 'Would you like to have me show you a quicker 
way to find the answer?' Of course they would, so I 
took the original problem and showed them how to find 
how many times 47 will go in 3367. They knew the answer 
and were quite excited when they found that my answer 
was the same, although it took only a few minutes to work 
it out. They worked it out in the new way for themselves 
and then calculated the allowances of the other kinds of 
paper. 

The children have become interested in the process 
and are eager to have practice problems. I cannot tell 
yet whether this method of introducing long division will 
have any permanent effect upon their abihty to divide, 
but at this stage they certainly understand better than 
any of my previous classes what long division is for and 
when to use it." 



86 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

Problem 70. — A sixth-grade teacher, Miss E., complains that 
she cannot cover the work in geography assigned to the grade. 
The course of study statement is : " Geography of South Amer- 
ica, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia." In the textbook 
172 pages are devoted to these continents. The class is pro- 
vided with geographical readers also. The principal appoints 
a committee of teachers, including Miss E., to consider the sixth- 
grade assignment and, if it is thought to be unsatisfactory, to 
recommend definite changes. 

The chairman of the committee first calls upon Miss E. to 
explain her experience. She says: "I am convinced that 
too much material is assigned to the sixth grade. I began 
the year's work by attempting to have the pupils master 
the facts in the textbook as we went along. I had to give 
sometimes three or four days to assignments that had been 
intended for a single lesson and when I questioned pupils 
on the work that we had been over a few weeks previously, 
I found that they had forgotten a great deal of it. At 
the end of the first h^lf year, I found that we had covered 
little more than a fourth of the work, so I have been going 
more rapidly but the pupils are not mastering the facts. 
I believe in thoroughness but that is impossible if we pre- 
tend to cover so much ground. To-day I counted the 
nimiber of separate facts mentioned on three pages of the 
textbook which I turned to at random, and I found 
about eighty facts on each of two pages and sixty on the 
third. Multiply 60 or 70 by 172 and see if it doesn't show 
the task to be impossible." 

One of the older teachers says : '*0f course it's impossible 
if you put it that way. I have been teaching the sixth 
grade for a good many years, but I am sure that I don't 
know all the facts in the textbook." 



SUBJECT MATTER AND PURPOSE 87 

"Then why not cut down the number of facts to be 
studied ? I don't see any use in pretending to teach a lot 
of things when we know they won't be learned. We ought 
to teach as much as can be done thoroughly and put the 
rest off to the next grade." 

Someone makes the objection that there is the same 
difficulty in other grade assignments and says that the 
proposed plan would make it impossible to cover the geog- 
raphy of the world in the elementary school course. One 
teacher thinks that geography ought to be continued in the 
high school, but another objects that, since so many pupils 
never go to high school, the geography of the world ought 
to be covered in the elementary grades. 

Next, the suggestion is made that the most important 
facts in the assignment of each grade be agreed upon and 
the rest eliminated. The conference adjourns at this 
point with the understanding that all the members of the 
committee will go over the assignment and come to the next 
meeting with definite opinions as to which parts are most 
important and which may be omitted. 

At the next meeting it soon appears that there is no gen- 
eral agreement upon the relative importance of the various 
topics treated in the textbook. Almost every item seems 
to someone too valuable to omit and, on the other hand, 
hardly a statement receives unanimous endorsement as an 
essential element of one's geographical knowledge. The 
task begins to look discouraging, until one of the members 
of the committee says : "I don't believe that the chief result 
of a study of geography is a knowledge of facts. Of course 
one must know a good many facts and is bound to acquire 
them if he has any interest in the subject. He will retain 



88 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

them, too, if he makes any use of them, and if he doesn't 
use them, he'll never miss them. I wonder if it isn't a 
mistake to try to load up a child's mind with information 
which he may possibly use some time. A great deal of 
such information is forgotten as we know, and when a 
person actually has need of some bit of geographical knowl- 
edge, he usually has to find out for himself by asking ques- 
tions or consulting books. I don't believe we need to worry 
if our pupils do not master all the facts in the textbook 
provided they acquire a real interest in geography and 
ability to make use of maps and indexes to find out the 
answers to geographical questions." 

This leads to a discussion of the purposes of studying 
geograpliy. Such suggestions as these are made : to under- 
stand geographical references which one meets in one's 
reading or in conversation, to get ideas and information 
needed in travel or planning journeys, to enable one to 
do business intelligently outside one's own community, 
to enable one to appreciate one's own country, to develop 
interest in other lands and people, to enable one to think 
and act intelligently upon political questions involving 
domestic and foreign problems. 

A vigorous discussion results in a general agreement that 
it is hopeless to attempt to learn in school all the geograph- 
ical knowledge that one may need to use and that in 
most cases the only effective plan is to get the information 
when it is needed. It is pointed out that when one has had 
occasion to look up facts for a particular purpose, they are 
likely to stick in his memory. The objection is made that 
many people never acquire the habit of looking up geograph- 
ical references which they do not understand, but read 



SUBJECT MATTER AND PURPOSE 89 

a newspaper article, for example, mispronouncing the names 
and having the vaguest possible ideas of the places referred 
to. This suggests that development of interest in geog- 
raphy and training in working out geographical problems 
should be given much attention by teachers. 

''Are we to discard the textbook?" asks one doubtful 
teacher. *'No," says another, ''but I think it should be 
used more as a reference book and less as material for close 
consecutive study." 

"How are we to develop that keen interest in other 
states and other lands which we have been talking about? " 
someone asks. " There is so little in the book about any one 
thing that it is not very exciting reading and does not make 
things real. It is just a compendium of facts." "That's 
right," says another. "The geographical readers are much 
more interesting. I think we ought to have a class library 
with books of travel and lots of pictures. My class got more" 
real knowledge of China from a visit to a museum than from 
any number of regular lessons." 

"Still I don't see just how to go to work," says the 
teacher who first criticized the sixth-grade assignment, 
" and what recommendation are we going to make to the 
superintendent?" The chairman suggests that these 
questions be left for the next meeting. At that time he 
asks if anyone has a definite plan to propose. One of the 
teachers responds as follows : 

" We have agreed on the importance of developing a 
habit of attacking geographical problems as they arise. 
That has suggested to me the possibility of taking a series 
of problems as the basis of the work of the grade. I have 
made a Hst of such problems. There will not be time, I 



go PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

think, to study all of them and probably everyone will 
have others to propose. Some will naturally be suggested 
by current events and I think that it would be well to allow 
the pupils some choice. Here is my Kst : 

1. Taking a trip to South America, or Egypt, or any of the 
other countries. 

2. Geography in the newspaper. 

3. How we get our clothing or our food. 

4. School children in other lands. 

5. Making a class collection of foreign post-cards, pictures, 
etc. 

6. The homes of foreign-born members of the class. 

7. How business is done with foreign countries'. 

I think that by means of such problems we could arouse 
the interest and give the training which we desire to give. 
At the same time pupils would probably learn many of the 
facts which we have been trying to teach and many others. 
It is not unlikely that the children would become sufficiently 
interested in foreign countries to read rather widely both 
in the textbook and in other books." 

The idea wins favor, various other problems are suggested, 
and discussion shows that very many of the conventional 
facts will naturally be brought out in the study. 

''We are forgetting one thing," says the teacher from 
Missouri. "The examination! The superintendent will 
call for the location of Stockholm and the pupils will not 
know whether it is a river in India or an African desert." 

It is clear that an examination of that sort would spoil 
the whole scheme. Therefore in the report which the 
chairman is authorized to make, he adds to the statement 
of purposes agreed on by the committee and the list of 
suggestive problems, a recommendation that, if a uniform 



SUBJECT MATTER AND PURPOSE 9 1 

examination is to be given to all of the sixth grades, it be 
not a catechism upon geographical facts but a test of pupils' 
ability to work out geographical questions by the use of 
textbooks, maps, and any other available reference material. 

Problem 71. — A high school teacher of history, who is a can- 
didate for a position, has an interview with the superintendent. 
The latter asks him to state his idea of the purpose of teaching 
history to high school students. The teacher replies that the 
chief purpose is to give pupils a knowledge of the past which 
will enable them to understand the problems of the present. 
The superintendent then says : *' In teaching a class in American 
history, what material ordinarily given in the textbooks do 
you consider of most value for your purpose? " The teacher 
is unable to give a satisfactory answer. " Is there any his-^ 
torical material which is not usually included in high school 
textbooks which would be of greater value for your purpose 
than some of the usual material? " The teacher has no ready 
answer to this. He is mortified but excuses himseh by saying 
that he had not expected such questions and would need time 
to answer them satisfactorily. " Very well," says the super- 
intendent, "suppose you take time to reflect and send me your 
answers in a few days." 

On the way home, the teacher is at first depressed. He 
feels that he has made a poor impression and will probably 
lose the position. He thinks that it will be a waste of time 
to study the superintendent's questions and write his 
answers. Such a paper, however well done, will not over- 
come the prejudice which his lack of definite ideas on these 
questions must have caused. He doubts whether any other 
superintendent would ask such questions. Then he falls 
to musing on the problem: "What historical material is 
of most service in understanding the present? Have I 
been teaching anything which has no such value? Do 
the books omit anything which would be of especial value 



92 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

for this purpose?" Suddenly he says to himself: "I'll 
work this out, position or no position. I've been talking 
gHbly about teaching history as a basis for understanding 
present problems and, when I'm challenged, I find that 
this is a mere phrase to me without any definite meaning. 
I believe that a knowledge of history ought to help one to 
understand present problems, but, as a matter of fact, I 
have made very little use of my own knowledge in this way. 
I may as well admit that w^hat I have really been aiming at 
IS a mastery of the textbook. What I ought to do is to 
select the historical material which fits the broader purpose." 
Setting to work, the same evening, the teacher turns 
over the leaves of the textbook in search of topics which will 
help to interpret present problems. He finds the process 
discouraging. There is a multitude of facts and events set 
forth as a record of what happened long ago — interesting 
to anyone who enjoys history but suggesting no evident 
connection with the life of to-day. Then it occurs to him 
to begin at the other end, to consider v/hat sort of knowledge 
a person needs, to cope with present problems, and then 
to see what history has to offer of such knowledge. After 
many hours of hard thinking and considerable revision of 
his first draft, he produces the following letter : 

My dear Mr. Avery : 

I have done some hard thinking on your questions and 
here are my answers. Whether or not you offer me the position, 
I am grateful to you for making me face problems which I had 
never recognized. 

I have come to the conclusion that the most useful lessons 
of history are a knowledge of human nature — the way people 
behave in given circumstances, — of the important discoveries 
which people have made which have been a benefit to mankind 
and upon which our modern life depends, and of the fruitful 



SUBJECT MATTER AND PURPOSE 93 

ideas which have had an important influence in shaping our 
customs and institutions. The advantage of using historical 
material in developing such knowledge is, I think, that it fur- 
nishes us with episodes which are more nearly complete than 
we can observe in current happenings. Causes and effects can 
be more clearly distinguished. Furthermore, the situations are 
usually less complex than those of modern life and are therefore 
more easily understood. 

For the study of human nature, we ought to select situations 
in which such traits as courage, cowardice, loyalty, disloyalty, 
self-sacrifice, selfishness, cooperation, jealousy, public spirit, 
individualism, self-restraint, indulgence, thrift, extravagance, 
toleration, narrow-mindedness, leadership, fair-mindedness, 
prejudice are exemplified and their influence made apparent. 
For example, the services of discoverers, explorers, and pioneers 
in paving the way for our comfortable mode of life should be 
appreciated. The dependence of civilization upon the courage 
and enterprise of the pioneer in whatever field ought to be 
emphasized. We still have need of pioneers. 

The struggle for independence, the political controversies, 
the various wars, the economic problems can all be taught as 
situations involving many of the elements which make up our 
difficulties, present and to come. If we succeed in interesting 
the students in the people who took part and in what they did, 
and if we help them to see similarities between the historical 
situations and those of the present, I think we shall develop 
sound ideas of human relationships and standards of conduct 
which will be permanently useful. 

The study of history ought to teach one to be patient but 
hopeful. We are prone to inveigh against the discomforts, 
injustices, and evils of the present. By contrasting our sur- 
roundings with those of our fathers we can easily see that civil- 
ization is making progress. We ought to show our students 
that these great advances have taken time and perseverance, 
with temporary defeat and retrogression. The study should 
not be limited to mechanical inventions, the effect of which is 
so easily perceived, but should include the growth of our institu- 
tions, political, social, and economic. As examples we may 
mention the development of a strong national government as 
contrasted with the aggregation of mutually jealous colonies 



94 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

under the Articles of Confederation and the growth of public 
schools since the days when education was the privilege of the 
well-to-do. 

You asked me what material ordinarily given in the history 
textbooks I had found most useful in preparing pupils to under- 
stand present problems, and what material not ordinarily in- 
cluded could well be substituted for the conventionally accepted 
matter. It seems to me, on reflection, that on the whole, the 
textbook material is too meager. In the effort to keep the 
books within the limits of a year's work and at the same time to 
cover the most important events in our country's history, the 
authors have reduced the story to a bare outline and in so doing 
have eliminated the details which are needed for- vividness and 
a sense of reality. If we are to get pupils keenly interested in 
real people living real lives, we must have something more than 
summaries. 

Obviously, however, we shall not have time to go into great 
detail in regard to every phase of American history. There 
must be selection and variation of emphasis. Bearing in mind 
the chief purpose which we have set up for teaching history, 
I make two suggestions. First, I should have a large amount 
of cursory reading to arouse interest, give a sense of reality, and 
furnish a background. There should be no attempt to make 
pupils master the details of this reading. It should not be done 
for examination purposes. We know from experience that 
even when we seek to have pupils master a textbook of moder- 
ate size, they forget most of the details very soon after the exam- 
ination. The important thing is that they should retain the 
fruitful ideas which will be of permanent value. They can look 
up the details whenever they need them. 

Secondly, I should select a limited number of topics for very 
careful study and discussion — such topics as will be most 
valuable in bringing out the ideas which we want pupils to re- 
tain. The formation and development of the national govern- 
ment, the growth of ideas, institutions, and laws in regard to 
social justice, and the development of education in the joint 
interest of the state and the individual are among the topics 
which I should choose. 

This method would omit, except for cursory reading, many 
topics upon which pupils are usually examined but I believe that 



MAKING A COURSE OF STUDY 95 

it would give a much better educational result. If our students 
carry away with them a real interest in history as a record of 
human Ufe, some accurate knowledge of human nature, and 
sound ideals in regard to public spirit, obedience to law, co- 
operation, the value of morality, and the influence of leadership, 
we need not be greatly alarmed if they are unable to name the 
presidents in order or have forgotten the terms of the Missouri 
Compromise. 

I have already suggested that pupils should read history in 
more detail than the ordinary textbook affords. I think there 
is also need of material of a different sort. Besides the lives of 
political and military heroes, we ought, if possible, to study the 
work of men and women who have made important contribu- 
tions in other fields, — science, medicine, engineering, business, 
public service, education, religion. 

If you can find time to comment on these suggestions, I shall 
be glad to have your criticisms. 

Yours very truly, 

Henry E. Taylor 

Problem 72. — As a preliminary to a revision of the course of 
study, teachers are asked to point out deficiencies in the existing 
course for their grades. The first-grade course is stated as 
follows : 

Reading: Phonetic system. Word building. Perception 
cards. Blackboard work. Drill on " blend " and 
" family " words. Primer and two first readers. Al- 
phabet. Oral reproductions. Mother Goose rimes. 
Fairy and nature stories. Simple dramatization. Poems 
suitable to the grade. 

Spelling of words selected from the readers. Large free 
writing. Short written compositions. , 

Addition and subtraction facts of i, 2, 3, 4 to 100. Writing 
and reading numbers to 100. Simple problems. Use of 
pound, yard, pint, quart, etc. 

Easy drawing, color work, weaving, paper folding, paper 
cutting, pasting, sewing, basketry. 

Singing and games. Simple calisthenics. Nature study. 



g6 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

A first-grade teacher prepares to write her criticisms. 
She reads over the statement of the course, and jots down 
the following notes : 

"Reading: Not enough books. Glass ought to read 
at least five. Some children can read ten." "Too much 
formal number work.'' 

"That's not much in the way of criticism,'^ she thinks. 
"Suppose those changes were made, would the course be 
satisfactory then ? Let's see whether there are any impor- 
tant omissions. Ah! There's nothing about health. I 
am sure that some of our health lessons are quite as impor- 
tant as spelling or number combinations. And then take 
the work that I have been trying to do to develop courtesy 
and self-reliance and cooperation. There's nothing to 
suggest that. Of course, a teacher might develop those 
quaHties while teaching what the outline calls for, but 
then she might not. As far as the outline goes, a teacher 
has done her full duty if the children have read two books, 
whether or not they have grown in self-reliance. The 
statement would give the impression that learning to read, 
learning mmiber facts, and the other bits of knowledge are 
the important things, and the character elements are 
incidental, supposed apparently to develop as a by-product. 
They won't unless the teacher keeps them in mind. Ought 
they not to have a place in the course of study, since it is 
intended for the teacher 's guidance ? 

The ground to be covered in formal knowledge seems 
reasonable enough, but that is all there is to the outline. 
My children do almost everything that is Hsted but the 
statement does not suggest living, growing, happy children. 
A first grade might cover this course of study and be a very 



I 



MAKING A COURSE OF STUDY 97 

dull affair. There ought, I thinli, to be more suggestion 
of activity. 

Let's forget the outline for a while and think of the chil- 
dren — think of them as they come in from the kindergarten, 
and then think of the changes that ought to take place 
in them in a year. After that, I can try to suggest what we 
should give the children to think about and to do, in order 
to produce the changes. Undoubtedly that will be a 
much harder thing to do than to criticize the amount and 
kind of formal subject matter laid out for the grade, but 
it will be interesting to see what I can do with it." 

The teacher takes a fresh sheet of paper and writes: 

" I .' Children at the beginning of the first grade. ' ' Under 
this she writes various notes at intervals after reflection, 
sometimes crossing out what she has written and making 
substitutions. The result is as follows : 

"No two children are alike. Some are self-possessed, 
others timid. Some talk freely, others usually silent. 
Extent of vocabularies differs much. Ideas differ as widely 
as vocabularies. Some very well-mannered, others very 
crude. Most are affectionate, a few unresponsive. Some 
have learned to work pretty well with others, some act 
selfishly and need to be constantly controlled. Nearly 
all are obedient. Most of the children are eager to learn 
to read, a few already know a few words, a few show no 
active interest. Some show much imagination and abiHty 
in drawing and making things. Class shows all degrees 
of abiHty in this respect. Most of the children know some 
songs and stories, but there is great variation. Practically 
all enjoy stories and games and especially making things. 
Variation in ideas of number. Variation in knowledge of 

E. T. PROB. 7 



98 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

nature and interest in it. Some are daintily dressed and 
habitually clean. Some are ragged through no fault of 
their own. Some are dirty. A few are very frail. Some 
are apparently undernourished. 

2. Children at the end of the first year. Still very 
unlike. Differences even more marked in some cases than 
at beginning. We cannot expect to overcome this. Chil- 
dren differ in capacity. What we want is a full year's 
growth for each one. A few of the children should already 
have been advanced to a higher grade. A few more should 
be ready to ^skip.' Some will not have made normal 
progress for a first grade. They should have made good 
progress for them, and they ought to continue, not just 
start over again. There should have been general progress 
in social and moral habits and ideas — working with others, 
self-direction, kindness, politeness, trustworthiness, clean- 
liness, health, abihty to plan, and carry out plans, skill 
in using hands, ability to choose the better of two things, 
from the standpoint of beauty, usefulness, right. There 
should be keen interest in each other, ambition to do one's 
best for the group. AbiHty to read for one's own enjoy- 
ment and the enjoyment of others, and ambition to read 
better; abihty to write well enough to accomphsh the 
individual's purposes. Same standard in use of numbers, 
in talking, drawing, and handwork. Especially, ambition 
to learn new things and become more skillful in order to 
carry out one's own plans. Knowledge of nature and es- 
pecially, interest in finding out new and beautiful things. 
Individual progress in overcoming defects; diffidence, 
selfishness, lack of initiative, lack of perseverance, errors 
of speech, etc." 



MAKING A COURSE OF STUDY 99 

The teacher reads over her notes and says: ''Now for 
the hard part." She writes : 

"S- Course of study planned to accompHsh these 
changes." As before she thinks and jots down notes, 
crosses out, and makes substitutions. This is the result : 

"The teacher's aim should be to have a group of happy, 
active, growing children, interested in each other and each 
other's growth, ambitious to grow themselves in order to do 
their part in making others happy. 

There should be as much doing as possible, and much 
cooperative group work. Work should be done with a 
purpose — a purpose that is the children's own. 

The things to be done should be such as children are 
naturally interested in and which will give opportunity 
for varied activity. Experience shows that they are 
usually interested in the lives of people with whom they 
come in contact. They love to play house, and store, to be 
postman, etc. The best project that I know of is playing 
house. Let the children build a doll's house, make furniture 
for it, decorate it, dress the dolls who are to occupy it. 
Let them dramatize or play the home activities: getting 
the meals, cleaning, having meals, etc. This sort of play 
will give the motive for learning to use their hands, for 
planning and executing, for choosing the best. It will 
give opportunity for learning good manners and ideas 
about health. It will give the teacher opportunity to put 
right ideas and ambitions into the children's minds without 
preaching. Perhaps there are other projects which will 
do as well, but this seems to be the best one that has been 
tried. 

In building and equipping the house, a good deal will be 



lOO PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

learned about niimbers, measuring, and judging distances, 
and this project will provide plenty of opportunity for 
training in language. 

The motive for learning to read is to enjoy books and to 
read to others. The method is suggested well enough 
(for a brief statement) in the present outline. There 
must be provision for individual differences. The class 
should have a library of suitable books which children can 
read when they have time. Some will read a great many. 
There should be opportunity for a child to read a new story 
to the rest of the class. Children can help others in learn- 
ing to read and help themselves at the same time. The 
books can be chosen so as to give the children valuable 
ideas. 

Writing invitations and signs, keeping accounts, and 
playing school will furnish a motive for learning to write. 

SpelHng must be learned in order to be able to write. 

Drawing will be used to make things clear to others, as 
well as for decoration, and just for fun, but the teacher 
should encourage the children to come to her for help when 
they get into difficulties. Then thiey can learn a new thing 
for keeps. 

The teacher should make a collection of stories which 
will bring out ideas which she wants the children to grasp — • 
stories of people who made themselves strong, or did others 
a good turn, or who never let the giant Laziness get the 
better of them. 

It will be great fun to get acquainted with all the birds 
and flowers that can be discovered, to show them to the 
class and perhaps to make some collections. 

Our outline ought to have a list of the best books, stories^ 



MAKING A COURSE OF STUDY lOl 

songs, and games for first graders. That is something that 
we shall have to work out. It will help teachers, too, if 
we make a collection of children's work of various sorts — 
not merely the best. We can have five or six samples of a 
given piece of work, ranging from the best to the poorest, 
and indicate what percentage of a class may be expected 
to reach each degree of skill." 

''There," says the teacher, after reading over her state- 
ment. '' That's the best I can do now. I have got 
something out of my thinking, whether my criticisms are 
accepted or not. When we get our ideas together, we ought 
to be able to improve on that dry-as-dust course of study." 

At a conference of the first-grade teachers, everyone is 
called upon for criticisms upon the existing course. Our 
teacher explains how she attacked the problem and reads 
her notes. Most of the teachers find themselves in sym- 
pathy with her point of view and feel that the new course of 
study statement should be worked out on the lines which 
she has suggested. There are, however, two main objec- 
tions: first, that the proposed plan is too general. The 
ideals are fine but most teachers, especially young teachers, 
will feel the need of a specific statement of the material to 
be used, in order to accomplish the results aimed at. Sec- 
ondly, that there should be a more definite statement of the 
formal knowledge which children are expected to acquire. 
Without such a statement, there will be great variation in 
accompKshment among classes as well as individuals. 

In offering the first objection, one of the teachers says : 
"You say that the children should become interested in 
each other's growth. I think so too, if it can be done, but 
the outline ought to show just what material to use, and 



I02 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

how to go to work." Our teacher replies: "I think there 
is a danger in attempting to accomplish such a result by 
prescribing exact procedure. The most important thing 
is for the teacher to believe, with all her might, that the 
children ought to acquire this attitude and that they can 
do so. If she understands little children, she will find the 
means of influencing them in the desired way much more 
effectively when she has her own youngsters in mind than if 
she follows a prescribed plan of work. She can use stories 
which suggest the idea, she can commend children when 
they show the desired attitude, and she can drop a remark 
here and there while the children are at work. The impor- 
tant thing is the aim not the exact subject matter. We 
must be careful not to focus attention on the subject matter 
and lose sight of the aim." 

Someone suggests that the objection might be overcome 
by appending to the course of study a detailed statement 
of the experience of a teacher who had been successful in 
developing the attitude in question. It could be explained 
that the statement ought not to be followed slavishly, that 
it is given merely as an illustration to show that the aim is 
practicable and to suggest ways of setting to work to 
accomplish it. This suggestion is approved. 

In regard to the second objection, it is pointed out that 
we must expect variations in formal knowledge possessed 
by the children, unless we deliberately stunt the growth of 
the abler ones, and make parrots of those who develop 
slowly. 

If we know definitely what individual children have 
acquired and assure ourselves that they can use what they 
know, the variation need not cause worry. It is agreed, 



THE VALUE OF SUBJECT MATTER IO3 

however, that teachers would be greatly aided by a state- 
ment of the formal knowledge that children ordinarily 
acquire by the end of the first grade when taught in the 
manner proposed. Approval is given to the proposal that 
some such statement as the following be given in the course 
of study : 

" The aim is not to have the children acquire formal knowl- 
edge for its own sake, but to have them learn to understand 
, and to do things which they can do with a purpose. In the 
activities suggested in the foregoing outline, first-grade children 
ordinarily acquire the following formal knowledge : 

Reading : 

per cent make little progress, too immature or mentally 

defective. Probably should not attempt reading at 
this stage. 

per cent manage to read primer and one first reader. 

Slow in memorizing words and in applying phonic prin- 
ciples. Need much drill and review. 

per cent read primer and two or three first readers and 

parts of others. 

per cent read primer, five or ten first readers. Read 

with enjoyment whenever opportunity offers. 

per cent read anything that interests them including 

books considerably beyond their grade. 

Note: Percentages to be adopted tentatively, by compiling 
the records of all teachers, and revised from time to 
time. Similar statements to be given for spelling, writ- 
ing, and number work." 

Problem 73. — High school teachers are required to submit 
their examination papers to the principal for approval. An 
English teacher hands in the following paper for a first-year 
class : 



I04 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

1. Write a page on the siege of Torquilstone Castle. 

2. Write a description of a Saxon home at the period in 
which the scene of " Ivanhoe " is laid. 

3. How was one of the following traits shown in some charac- 
ter in " Ivanhoe " : Loyalty, bravery, devotion, service, 
revenge ? 

4. Explain the meaning of the following terms : Holy Grail, 
Knight Templar, zecchin, drawbridge, gramercy, life- 
in-death, albatross, quarter-staff, sorcerer. 

5. How are sentences classified as to form? Give an ex- 
ample of each. 

6. Classify as parts of speech all the words in the following 
passage : 

Ernest saw him. There he was beneath the arch of 
green boughs; and there, too, through the vista of the 
forest, appeared the Great Stone Face. And was there, 
indeed, the resemblance to which the crowd had testified ? 
Alas ! Ernest could not recognize it ! He beheld a war- 
worn and weather-beaten countenance, full of energy, and 
expressive of an iron will; but the gentle wisdom, the 
deep, broad, tender sympathies, were altogether wanting 
in old Blood-and-Thunder's visage. 

The principal criticizes the paper on the ground that it 
is too exclusively a test of memory, and requests that it be 
revised so as to test power in the use of English and in 
understanding of important ideas suggested by the reading 
done during the term. 

The teacher is hurt and inclined to be angry. He was 
rather proud of this paper, having made an earnest effort 
to frame questions which would test the pupils' knowledge 
of '' Ivanhoe," to the study of which four or five weeks have 
been devoted. In composition, narration and description 
have been emphasized and the first two questions were 
intended to test pupils' ability to apply the principles 
studied. The grammatical questions were based on 



TESTING THE VALUE OF MATERIAL I05 

work which had occupied a lot of time. It was grammar 
school work, to be sure, but the pupils didn't seem to know 
the difference between a complex and a compound sentence 
and were absurdly inaccurate in distinguishing between 
the parts of speech. He proposed to condition in grammar 
any pupil who failed on those two questions. 

The matter remains upon the teacher's mind during 
much of the day. He imagines the interview with the 
principal when he goes to discuss the matter. Various 
clever and cutting remarks pass through his mind. Perhaps 
the principal would Hke to make out the paper himself. 
In the evening, he sits down, with the idea of preparing 
overwhehning argimients in defense of his original questions. 

The first criticism is that the questions depend too much 
upon memory. It is true that a good many facts are 
needed to answer the questions, but any pupil who has paid 
attention during the term ought to remember most of 
them. Suppose he were to modify the questions so as to 
require a less exact memory of details, would the result be 
a better test of power in the use of English? It occurs 
to him that a pupil who has forgotten some of the details 
might not be able to write much on some of the questions, 
and might spend his time trying to recall details and so 
fail to do himself justice in his use of English. "What sort 
of test," he thinks to himself, "would be likely to call 
forth the best writing that a person can do?" His first 
thought is: "Let him write on the subject that interests 
him most." He writes : 

"i. Write a page on the subject in which you are most 
interested." 

He has hardly finished this statement when he draws a 



I06 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

line through it, saying: ''No, that won't do. Most boys — 
and some girls, I imagine — would not be wildly eager to 
write a page about anything unless they had a strong motive 
for it. They would chew their pencils, and write a sentence 
at a time with the aim of getting the page filled." 

Another objection occurs to him. "Writing on the 
subject which interests one most is not an adequate test. 
Few people enjoy writing just for the sake of writing even 
on an interesting subject. Most people would want to 
talk about it, but they wouldn't care to write. A few of 
my pupils would shine in such work ; but they are the pupils 
whom I do not need to test. Isn't it true that we all 
have to do some writing where the motive is not to ex- 
press our thoughts on an interesting subject, but to make 
an impression on other people who are expected to read 
what we write ? It is the impression that we are interested 
in. Why can I not set up a situation in which a high school 
freshman shall have a motive for writing as well as he can ? " 

He makes a Hst : 

a. A letter to a person on whom the writer is anxious to make 

a definite impression. 
h. A contribution for the school paper or local paper or a 

literary society. 

c. Preparation for a social gathering or a dub meeting in 
which the pupil will be expected to contribute something 
interesting. 

d. A report on some subject assigned by a teacher, or a re- 
port as an officer or committeeman to a club meeting. 

"Now," says the teacher, "how can I set the stage so 
that the pupil will be face to face with a real problem in 
composition?" After much reflection and frequent 
changes, he evolves the following : 



TESTING THE VALUE OF MATERIAL I07 

" The first part of the examination is to test your ability to 
write eflfectively. Choose one of the first two problems and one 
of the other three. Try to forget that you are writing an exami- 
nation and imagine yourself in the situation described in the 
problem. Think of the person or persons whom you are ad- 
dressing and try to plan your writing so as to produce the effect 
upon them that you want to make. 

Problem A. 

Chicago, January 5, 192 1 

Dear 

I am sorry that you weren't up in time to walk to the 
station with me when I started on this business trip. I wanted 
to ask you to do something while I was away. Mother will be 
expecting to hear from you and I don't need to remind you to 
write for I am sure that you will do that, but I want you to do a 
good job. It must be pretty tedious for her in the hospital, 
and letters will make it easier for her. She will be glad, of 
course, to get any sort of letter, even if it is the usual thing: 
' Dear Mother : I hope you are feeling better. There isn't 
anything new, and I haven't much time to-night. I'll write 
again soon.' But that sort of letter isn't what I expect of you. 
Mother isn't stupid and she can't help feeUng, 'He doesn't 
care much.' You really do care and if you go at your letter as 
you do a tennis match or anything else that you are determined 
to do well, you will make her know how much you miss her and 
will make her happy for days. See if you can't make her smile. 
Give her something to think about. 

From your affectionate 

Dad 

Problem B. 

Dear 



Prepare to be shocked, outraged, and then overwhelmed ! 
Your staid little town is in danger of excitement beyond any- 
thing that it has experienced since Washington spent a sleepless 
night in its best hotel. A famous family is about to descend 
upon you — perhaps. 

Father has been transferred to the New York office and the 
family council is debating the question, ' Where shall we live? ' 



loS PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

Sister is the leading advocate for a flat in the great city, but 
Mother is just as strong for the negative and she usually gets 
the decision. So the question is East Orange, or Mount Vernon, 
or Hackensack? Which? Here's your chance to boom your 
own village. The main question is schools or, more exactly, 
high schools. Father has friends who live in the first two places 
and they are loud in their praises of their high schools, but 
wouldn't it be splendid if we could be in school together ! When 
Father told his friends that he had heard the Hackensack schools 
well spoken of, they said : ' No doubt they are very good for a 
small place, but of course they could hardly be equal to those of 
larger and wealthier cities like Mount Vernon and East Orange.' 
Do send me some ammunition ! 

Yours ever, 

Jane 

Problem C. 

At a meeting of the editors of a school paper, the proposal 
is made that a representative of the freshman class be ap- 
pointed. This is vigorously opposed by some of the older 
students on the ground that freshmen are too young to write 
anything worth reading. It is finally decided to have a trial 
and if anything really good is submitted, to choose the author 
of the best piece of work. 

Problem D. 

A boy is usually very silent at meal times. One day, after a 
friend has been his guest at dinner, his mother has a talk with 
him. She asks: 'Why didn't you help to entertain Henry? 
You just sat still and ate. He kept trying to start conversation 
but you never said more than a word or two in reply and you 
never volunteered a remark.' ' I couldn't think of anything 
interesting to say,' he replies. ' I think that is a kind of mental 
laziness,' she continues. ' You should have felt some respon- 
sibility for making the meal enjoyable. Even when we have no 
guests, everyone ought to have something to contribute at meal 
times. Otherwise our meals would be like feeding time for 
animals.' ' Well I have tried to talk,' he retorts, ' but I can't. 
I can't seem to think of anything worth while, and if I do, I 



TESTING THE VALUE OF MATERIAL IO9 

can't put it in an interesting way.' * I am going to make a 
suggestion,' she replies. ' It will take some effort, but it will 
be worth doing. Do some thinking before mealtime. Think 
over your experiences, the people you have met, funny things 
you have heard, and write them out so as to make them interest- 
ing. After you have done this a few times, it will become 
easier, I think. Try it for to-morrow.' 

Problem E. 

You have probably had to prepare some piece of written work 
to present to the class in one of your subjects, say history or 
science. Assume that you now have to write your report on 
this subject. Remember that you are expected to know more 
about the matter than your classmates. Present it in such a 
way as to interest them and enable them to carry away the im- 
portant ideas." 

"I will show that to Mr. G.," thinks the teacher, *'as a 
substitute for my first two original questions. I think, 
myself, that it is a better test of power in the practical use 
of English. Now let's look at his other criticism. He 
wants me to test the pupils' understanding of important 
ideas suggested by the reading. Now what are the im- 
portant ideas that pupils ought to get from ' Ivanhoe,' the 
* Ancient Mariner/ and the 'Vision of Sir Launfal'?" 
He writes : 

'^Ivanhoe: Ideals of courage, unselfish love, endurance, 
strength, loyalty to friends, protection of the weak. Un- 
worthiness of ideals of selfish power, oppression of the weak, 
use of others for one's own satisfaction, cruelty, revenge." 
He thinks: "It is the human qualities, made real in the 
stirring scenes of the story which ought to make the im- 
pression. It doesn't matter much whether the details of 
the story are accurately retained if these ideals sink home. 
I had some such idea in framing my third question. Can I 



no PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

improve on it? My question might test only memory." 
After reflection, he writes again. 

"i. What character in 'Ivanhoe' do you admire most? 
Describe your vision of him and explain what caused you 
to attribute to him the quahties which you see in him. 
What character do you dislike most ? Explain in a similar 
way. If those two people were living at the present time 
explain the behavior which you would expect of them." 

Going on to the next question, the teacher says to him- 
self : ''That is a straight memory question. I can easily 
improve on that." Rewrites: 

"2. What did you enjoy most in the 'Ancient Mariner' 
and the ' Vision of Sir Launf al ' ? What did you get from 
them that is worth remembering? Was the time which 
you spent on them well spent? Why?" 

At this point, the teacher's time is exhausted. He 
takes his notes to the principal and receives cordial approval 
of his revised questions. "What about the last two ques- 
tions?" the principal asks. "Well," says the teacher, 
" I have spent a lot of time on those points and I want to see 
what the pupils know about them." "What is your aim in 
teaching them ? " is the next question. "Why," the teacher 
replies, "to enable pupils to write correctly." "If a pupil 
answers the questions perfectly, will his EngHsh be correct ? " 
"Not necessarily," is the reply. "Suppose a pupil is 
ignorant of the scheme of classification of sentences and 
unable to identify every word under the proper heading, 
will his English necessarily be incorrect ? " "Perhaps not." 
"Then, why insist on this formal knowledge? It seems to 
me that in your previous questions, you have sufi&cient 
basis for judging the quality of his English. If such classi- 



TESTING THE VALUE OF MATERIAL III 

fications as you have been teaching are really necessary 
or helpful for correct use of English, it ought to be possible 
to test pupils in their power to apply this knowledge." 

Principles Relating to Subject Matter 

1. The amount of subject matter available for education is 
limitless. No one person can give attention in a long life 
to more than a small fraction of the knowledge which the 
race has acquired. Obviously we must try to find sound 
bases for selection. 

2. Subject matter should be selected in accordance with the 
purpose of education, that is, holding the purpose in mind, 
we must try to select that which is most likely to contrib- 
ute to its accomplishment. 

3. The needs of society should be an important criterion of 
selection. 

4. Absorption of subject matter should not be regarded as an 
end in itself. It should be used as a means of aiding the 
development of the pupil. 

5. Subject matter which is of current value should take prece- 
dence over conventional knowledge. 

6. Acquirement of important ideas, ideals, and attitudes should 
be sought rather than the memory of details . Pupils should be 
trained to find information for themselves as needed. Sub- 
ject matter may often be used as a sort of scaffold for de- 
veloping ideals, interests, and habits of work. This scaffold- 
ing is not of permanent value. Do not try to fix it in 
memory but make sure that the main structure is firmly 
established. 

7. The actual effect of subject matter studied upon a pupil's 
interests, attitudes, and conduct is a better test of its value 
than adult conceptions of what it ought to accomplish. 
We must rely less upon memory of facts as a test of educa- 
tional accomplishment and learn to measure the more fun- 
damental effects of our teaching. 

8. Knowledge which is gained through experience in which it 
is employed for a purpose is more serviceable than that 
which is studied without relation to a felt need. The most 



112 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

eilective education involves much doing by children under 
the stimulus of their own purpose. 
9. A very few central themes or projects for a grade are better 
than a multitude of bits of information and isolated pro- 
cesses. The first named type of subject matter encourages 
continued thinking, organization of ideas, and application 
of processes. 
10. The best material for developing habits, ideals, interests, 
and abilities is that which is most closely related to the 
interests of the pupils. 

Problems eor the Reader to Solve 

Problem 74. — Teachers of the first grade are asked to make 
recommendations as to what work, if any, in arithmetic should 
be included in the course for the grade. 

Problem 75. — A teacher of an elementary grade has worked 
in a system whose course of study included handwork consisting 
of miscellaneous exercises giving practice in cutting, pasting, 
sewing, etc. She goes to work in another system in which 
"Industrial Arts" furnishes much of the subject matter of the 
elementary grades. Information about industrial materials 
and processes which calls for a good deal of the class time is 
new to her. A greater variety of handwork is called for than 
she has been used to, but there is not time to develop much 
skill. She is puzzled about the purpose of the plan and is in- 
clined to doubt its value, so she appeals to another teacher for 
an explanation. 

Problem 76. — A high school teacher who has been used to 
following a definite outline based upon college entrance re- 
quirements enters a system in which he is expected to plan his 
own courses. He learns that the principal and superintendent 
will expect him to have good reasons for any topics which he 
includes in the course. 

Problem 77. — A teacher of arithmetic is asked to review a 
new textbook and make a recommendation in regard to its 
substitution for the book in use. She is expected to demonstrate 
the soundness of her advice. 



SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL II3 

Problem 78. — A sixth-grade teacher has always depended 
upon the supervisor for subjects of lessons in drawing. The 
illness of the supervisor throws the teacher upon her own re- 
sources for several weeks. The supervisor will want to know 
what she has done and why she has done it. 

Problem 79. — A teacher of French realizes that very few of 
her students ever make any use of the language. Apparently 
they take the subject either because it is required for college en- 
trance or because they prefer it to the available alternate sub- 
jects or because their friends take it or because it is fashionable. 
She wonders whether the language studied with those motives 
and never used after the course has been completed is serving 
any important educational purpose. 

Problem 80. — A Latin teacher reads criticisms of the educa- 
tional value of Latin. He is perfectly confident that Latin is 
the most valuable subject of the curriculum, and the articles 
only make him angry. In defending his position he makes 
vehement assertions which do not seem convincing to anyone 
except himself and those who hold opinions like his own. 

Problem 81. — A teacher of mathematics hears a lecturer say 
that the study of algebra is a waste of time except for those who 
enter fields of work in which it is needed as a tool. His incli- 
nation is to deny this but he realizes that the sensible thing to do 
is to accept the statement as a challenge, and try to find out the 
truth of the matter. He has always enjoyed teaching algebra, 
but he has no desire to spend his life in work which is of doubtful 
value. 



Problem 82. — A high school teacher is interested in educa- 
tional aims. He likes the phrase, " preparation for citizenship," 
and reflects upon the relation of the curriculum to this purpose. 
Much of the work seems to have very little direct bearing upon 
this aim. He feels that the students ought to spend more time 
upon the problems of the present, and tries to make a list of 
such problems, which would be appropriate for high school 
students. 

E. T. PROB. — 8 



114 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

Problem 83. — A parent remarks to a member of the board of 
education that the schools are wasting their time on fads and 
frills and the ignorance of the children is appalling. He ques- 
tioned his boy the other night, and found that he hadn't the 
slightest idea of the location of Kamchatka, or Tierra del Fuego, 
or Timbuctoo. He didn't even know the capital of Vermont. 
The board member calls upon the boy's teacher and wants to 
know why she is neglecting geography. 

Problem 84. — A political organization petitions the board of 
education to require all pupils in the graduating class of the ele- 
mentary school to know the names of all national, state, county, 
and local officers representing the district. The teacher wonders 
whether such knowledge is valuable enough for eighth-grade 
pupils to warrant withdrawal of the time required from other 
subjects. She realizes that the board is very likely to grant 
the petition unless convincing reasons for refusing it are offered. 

Problem 85. — A teacher is present when a group of people 
begin to tell reminiscences of their school days. They dwell 
on the subjects which they studied and which they no longer 
remember. One took calculus in college, but couldn't now do a 
problem to save his life. Another studied Greek for several 
years, but declares that he can now remember only a few letters 
of the alphabet. Another can remember that he once studied 
ancient history. He knows that he hated it and that is about all 
that remains in his mind. A fourth recollects that he once 
learned how to do examples in " present worth " and " partial 
payments," but he hasn't the least idea what the terms mean. 
The teacher wonders whether there is any use in teaching facts 
which will be soon forgotten. 

Problem 86. — The father of a high school girl complains that 
her education has not fitted her to meet her own problems. 
She has always received high marks, but is inclined to de- 
pend upon him for decisions which he thinks she ought to 
make for herself. She wanted to go to a camp the previous 
summer, so he told her to find out what she would need in money 
and equipment, and asked the mother to let the daughter work 
out her own problem. The result was that she sent for money 
the day after she arrived at camp, and wrote every few days 
for something that she needed. 



SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL II5 

Problem 87. — At a teachers' meeting, there is a discussion on 
the subject of spelling. It is agreed that many children make 
mistakes on very common words. One of the teachers feels 
that time is being wasted on words which many of the pupils 
will never have occasion to write, but another objects that it 
will not do to omit any of the words in the spelling book as some 
of the pupils may have occasion to use them later. 

REFERENCES 

Earhart, L. B., Types of Teaching, Chapters I, X, XI, XV. 

Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter XI. 

Miller, I. E., Education for the Needs of Life, Chapter IV. 

Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, Chapters VI, XIV. 

King, L, Education for Social Efi&ciency, Chapter XL 

Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter 

XVIII. 
Engleman, J. 0., Moral Education in School and Home, Chapters 

VI-XXI. 
McMurry, F. M. , How to Study, Chapters III-VL 
Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter XII. 



CHAPTER VI 

PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

Appropriateness of Material for Children of Va- 
rious Grades ; Differentiation of Subject Matter 

Problem 88. 

COLUMBIA PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT 

NOTICE TO ALL TEACHERS 

A recently enacted law requires that all pupils in the public 
schools of the state shall study the subject of Fire Prevention 
at least one hour per month. We are free to decide how the sub- 
ject shall be presented in the various grades and I wish your 
help in working out plans so as to obtain the maximum benefit 
from the requirement. A general teachers' meeting will be 
devoted to the discussion of this subject. In the meantime, 
please give it your best thought. You will naturally give chief 
attention to the work in your own grade, but you should bear 
in mind that pupils will study the subject each year and it will 
therefore be necessary to consider the relation of your own work 
to that to be done in other grades. 

A. B. Campbell 

Superintendent 

At the meeting, the first speaker says : *' It seems to me 
that the law is absurd. The intent is all right but the 
legislators evidently don't understand the needs of the 
schools. The curriculum is already overcrowded, and how 
are we to find time to give an hour to this subject every 

ii6 



MATERIAL FOR CHILDREN OF VARIOUS GRADES II7 

month from the kindergarten to the end of the high school?" 
Another says : ''It calls for too much time. With an hour 
a month, the subject will be exhausted in a year. If we 
make out a syllabus including everything worth while 
that can be taught about fire prevention and then divide 
it among the grades, there will not be enough for any one 
grade to occupy an hour a month ; and unless the material 
is divided up in that way, the same things will be repeated, 
year after year. The fire-prevention lessons will become 
tedious and perfunctory and all the time will be wasted." 

''There is another serious objection," says a third. " The 
subject is not suitable for all grades. The young children 
will not understand it and the high school students will 
make a joke of it. The pupils in the upper grades of the 
elementary school will be interested in the subject and can 
easily cover the whole ground. I think we ought to try 
to have the law changed so as to limit the instruction to 
the seventh or eighth grade. That will avoid waste of 
time and bring better results." 

Then opposing arguments are offered. A kindergarten 
teacher says: "There will be no diihculty in interesting 
five-year-olds in fire prevention if it is taken up in the 
proper way. Of course, if you make out a syllabus and 
then cut it up into sections giving a bit to each grade, 
probably none of the slices will fit. I think that is the 
wrong way to go at it. We ought to select those phases 
of the subject which are within the experience of the chil- 
dren to be taught or which can be made real and interesting 
to them, and present them in a manner consistent with 
their intelligence." 

Another says: "Repetition need not make the work 



Il8 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

tedious. If used skillfully it will add to the interest. I 
have no faith in the plan of Kmiting the subject to one grade. 
If the idea is to make a permanent impression, it must come 
up again and again, but at each new appearance it must 
involve new applications and so become a bigger idea." 

The superintendent then enters the discussion. *'I am 
not defending the law. In general, I believe it is a mistake 
to fix courses of study and time allotments by legislation. 
Such action prevents the flexibility which is needed for 
adapting educational means to the varying conditions 
throughout the state and it often leads to a perfunctory 
compliance with the law in place of a purposeful study of 
the needs of the schools. Nevertheless, I believe that this 
law may result in a real improvement in our school work. 
We realize that much of the material in our course of study 
holds its place through the force of custom. We would 
like to have our schools deal more directly with important 
civic problems. 

If we can succeed in making a permanent impression 
upon our pupils in regard to the injury to humanity 
which is caused by preventable fires and if we can establish 
ideals of individual responsibility for controlling this danger 
in the public interest, we shall agree, shall we not, that 
the time spent can easily be taken from subjects which 
contribute less to the common good. The law gives us 
a chance to work this out and protects us from the cry 
of ^fads and frills,' which is sure to be raised against any 
change from the curriculum of the 'good old days.' 

Probably the law will need modification, but I doubt 
whether we are prepared to say just how it should be 
changed. Let us try the plan out and see how much we 



MATERIAL FOR CHILDREN OF VARIOUS GRADES IIQ 

can accomplish. After a year or two of experience, if we 
find that the law hampers us, we shall be in a position to 
suggest desirable changes and to offer evidence in sup- 
port of our suggestions." 

As there is not time for much discussion of details, teach- 
ers are asked to hand their suggestions to a committee 
which is to work out a tentative syllabus. The super- 
intendent asks what principles should guide the committee 
in selecting material for the various grades. 

After considerable discussion the following principles 
are agreed upon : 

1. The chief purpose is to develop an attitude, not to 
teach facts. The pupil should come to reahze that fire is 
necessary to civilized people, but is a serious danger, unless 
carefully controlled. He should acquire a sense of respon- 
sibiHty for conducting himself and cooperating with others 
so as to prevent fires as far as possible. Information is to 
be used to develop this attitude and to enable the pupil to 
act intelligently. 

2. As far as possible the pupil should learn about fire 
prevention under the stimulus of his own purpose. There- 
fore the work should be put in the form of problems or 
projects. 

3. That material is best for a given grade which arouses 
the greatest interest. This can be determined by experi- 
ment. 

4. The child's own relation to fires should be an important 
criterion for selection of material. Actual experiences of 
children of the grade will be better starting points than 
imaginary situations. Situations in which a child of a 
given age might cause or prevent a fire are to be chosen 



120 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

rather than those in which he can have no active partici- 
pation until he is older. 

5. Some aspects of fire prevention cannot involve action 
by children of school age, for example, the attitude of the 
voter or tax-payer toward expenditure for fire prevention. 
Such situations should be taken up by pupils as a part of 
their preparation for citizenship, whenever they are old 
enough to understand and appreciate them. 

6. Methods of presentation and study must be adapted 
to the interests and capacities of the pupils. 

At the first meeting of the committee, the teachers' 
suggestions are read. There is much variation even among 
the papers written by teachers of the same grade, and plans 
proposed for a certain grade are in some instances very much 
like those given by other teachers of much higher grades. 
Someone suggests that everything proposed by the teachers 
of a given grade be put together so as to obtain a consensus 
of the opinions of those who know the children best, in 
regard to what material is appropriate. Objection is made 
that this method will lay too much stress upon subject 
matter and it is finally decided to suggest problems and 
projects which are thought to be suitable for different grades 
and to indicate subject matter which is likely to be used in 
working out the problems, using the teachers' suggestions 
as a check on the ideas of the members of the committee. 
These projects are suggested, at first without attempting 
to designate the exact grade, since there is a good deal of 
difference of opinion as to where they belong. 



material for children of various grades 121 

Projects in Fire Prevention 

Kindergarten and Primary Grades : 

1. To learn how to help the firemen. 

2. To find the best little fireman's helper (search for stories 
of children who helped). 

3. To make a set of rules to help little people to keep fire 
chained up. 

4. To make up a play to show the other children how to 
prevent fire from breaking loose. 

Middle Grades : 

5. How to make homes safe against fire. 

6. Keep a record of fires in the town — the losses — the 
causes. How could they have been prevented? 

7. Who has done most to prevent fires ? Biography. 

8. What materials will not burn ? Fire-proofing. 

9. What things burn easily? How to keep them from 
catching fire. 

10. What causes fires from within the house ? 

11. What causes fires from without the house? 

Upper Grades : 

12. What a housewife needs to know about fire. 

13. What a camper needs to know about fire. 

14. What fire dangers are there in our town? What can we 
do to lessen them ? 

15. Organization of a fire patrol. 

16. How does electricity cause fixes? 

17. What is our town doing to prevent fires? 

18. When property is destroyed by fire, who is the loser? 

High School : 

19. Why America's fire loss is so much greater than that of 
other countries. 

20. How can fire insurance rates be reduced ? 

21. Is our national government doing enough to prevent fire 
losses ? 

22. Publicity campaign : To show our citizens that they are 
pla3dng with fire ; why they ought to stop it, and how. 

23. How much do we spend for fire protection? Is it too 
much? 



122 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

24. Who is responsible when Hves are lost by fire ? 

25. Scientific control of fire. Inventions. 

26. History of fire prevention. 

It is proposed that teachers make selections from among 
these projects, try them out, and report results in detail. In 
this way it is thought that the most valuable projects for the 
various grades will be determined and detailed suggestions ob- 
tained in regard to methods. 

Problem 89. — A high school teacher belongs to a teachers' 
association. At one of the meetings a paper is presented ad- 
vocating differentiation of courses in the upper grammar grades. 
This leads to a vigorous discussion in which many different 
points of view are ardently set forth. Some of the members 
believe that differentiation is dangerous, that even in the high 
school there should be a uniform course of study. A majority 
believe that variation should begin at some stage in the school 
course but there is no agreement as to where this stage lies. 
Some would start in the fourth grade, others in the last year of 
the high school. A few think that there should be some dif- 
ferentiation even in the earliest years. The interest is so keen 
that it is decided to continue the subject at the next meeting. 
Our teacher feels that he ought to take part and, as he is a new 
member, is anxious to make a good impression. He therefore 
sets to work to study the question carefully. 

The teacher recalls that, in preparing for debates, he has 
found it useful to make a list of possible arguments on both 
sides of the question. He therefore begins his study by 
jotting down arguments in support of differentiation and 
writing beside them opposing arguments. When com- 
pleted, his statement is as follows : 



In Favor of Differentiation Opposed to Diferentiation 

I. The world's acciunulation i. All the people of a nation 

of knowledge and experience should possess certain knowl- 

is far too great for any one per- edge in common, in order that 



MATERIAL FOR CHILDREN OF VARIOUS GRADES 1 23 



son to acquire it all. Further- 
more, it is constantly increas- 
ing. Therefore there must be 
selection. 

2. The needs of society call 
for a great variety of activities. 
Therefore people should be 
trained in different ways. 

3. There is a wide range of 
native capacities among peo- 
ple. To develop the possibil- 
ities of individuals of different 
capacities, there must be vari- 
ation in education. 

4. Individuals of a given de- 
gree of maturity have been 
subject to different environ- 
mental factors: home, associ- 
ations with people, travel, etc. 
This variation in experience 
calls for differentiation in edu- 
cation. 

5. Variation in interests must 
be taken into consideration if 
individuals are to attain the 
greatest possible degree of 
happiness and usefulness. 
Lack of interest in what the 
school offers causes many pu- 
pils to leave school earlier than 
they need. 



they may understand each 
other and act in harmony. 

2. In a democratic country, 
nobody should be denied the 
opportunity to enter any field 
which he may choose. Differ- 
entiation tends to limit such 
opportunity. 

3. It is impossible to deter- 
mine a person's capacities 
early in life. Nobody has 
the right to steer an individ- 
ual in a definite direction, on 
the assumption that his capac- 
ities will not permit him to 
travel other roads. 

4. It is impracticable to make 
allowance for the compli- 
cated influences which affect 
a pupil outside of school. 

5. Interests are transitory. 
A person who does only what 
interests him becomes " soft." 

6. It is impossible to tell in 
advance how long a child will 
remain in school. Therefore 
it should be assumed that he 
will remain until the end of 
the course. 



6. The time during which chil- 
dren remain in school varies. 
The course of study should, as 
far as possible, be adjusted to 



7. It will cost too much to 
provide differentiated courses. 
Differentiation will necessitate 
organization of smaller classes. 



124 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

the length of the individual's 8. It will be more difficult 

school career, so that he will to secure competent teachers, 

be as well prepared as possible Teachers can be more easily 

for a happy and useful life. trained for a uniform course. 

Having set down the arguments on both sides of the 
question our teacher proceeds to examine them. The 
first statement in favor of differentiation seems to him 
self-evident. There must be differentiation in order that 
the world may profit by inherited knowledge and in order 
that progress m.ay continue. The only questions are where 
differentiation should begin and on what principles it should 
be made. He assents also to the proposition that some 
knowledge should be held in common. This, he feels, is 
not inconsistent with difi'erentiation, but may offer a clue 
as to the time for beginning to differentiate. He is inclined 
to admit that a uniform course of study would be easier 
to administer and less expensive than a plan of differentia- 
tion, and this would suggest that the knowledge needed in 
common should be imparted during the period of compulsory 
education. Would it be a sound principle, then, to post- 
pone differentiation until all the material of general value 
has been taught? Several questions upon the validity of 
this principle occur to him : 

I. Is the purpose to be served by uniformity of knowl- 
edge more important than that which calls for differentia- 
tion, so that, if either is sacrificed, it should always be 
the latter? For example, is it important for the public 
welfare that a child who has unusual talent in music or art 
should be taught the elementary facts of geography even 
if this curtails his time for practice during the elementary 
school period? 



DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECT MATTER 1 25 

2. Can all the knowledge that should be held in com- 
mon be acquired in the years of childhood or does some of 
it demand greater maturity? The teacher questions the 
ability of children under fourteen to grasp some of the ideas 
of citizenship which are of the greatest importance to the 
public welfare. 

3. Can the abilities and ideas which are of general value 
be most effectively taught by the use of the same subject 
matter with all children? 

He is unable to come to any definite conclusion but feels 
that he ought to keep his mind open to the possibility 
that some differentiation may be advantageous even in 
the early years of the school course, and that some meas- 
ure of uniformity may be needed to the very end. 

The argument that the needs of society require differen- 
tiation of training must, he thinks, be admitted by everyone. 
The question here also is not whether there shall be differen- 
tiation, but' when shall it begin and what shall be its nature? 
It may be that paths should not begin to separate until after 
school days are over, but in that case the schools will con- 
tribute nothing toward the special training needed for the 
various kinds of service to be rendered. It seems to him 
that the usual course does in fact provide much better for 
the small minority which is headed toward a professional 
career than for those who will fill the humbler positions. 
Is it not probable that some of the material which is suitable 
for the type of pupil who will later go to college may well 
be dispensed with in the case of the pupil who will become 
an artisan and that some ideas are important for the latter 
which are not significant for the former at the same age? 

The second argument for the negative was emphasized 



126 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

very strongly at the meeting of the association. One of- 
our cherished ideals is that any American boy may hope 
to be president of the United States. ' ' It would be undemo- 
cratic," asserted the opponents of differentiation, ''to en- 
courage or even to permit a child to take a side path leading 
away from the road to the top." This seems plausible, but 
as our teacher reflects upon it, he comes to the conclusion 
that it ignores many evident facts. If the development of 
all children toward their greatest possibihties of happiness 
and usefulness can be gained by keeping them in the same 
path as long as they remain in school, it would be unwise 
to allow them to branch off into routes which will limit their 
future progress, but if, on the other hand, this uniform 
course fails to provide the best development of all children, 
then keeping them together in a road, which, for many 
of them, does not lead to their destinations, would cause 
serious waste. The fact is that a large proportion of boys 
and girls turn aside from the general school path at various 
points along the way, and from that time on travel very 
divergent routes. Has the uniform school course given 
such pupils the best preparation for their future Hves? 
If not, they have paid a high price for their brief journey 
toward the summit which only a few ever reach and there 
has been a corresponding loss to the pubKc. Our teacher 
wonders whether it would not be easier for pupils who show 
at any time unsuspected possibilities, to regain the path 
leading to higher education than for those who fail in a 
course designed for all to make up the time spent in work 
without real progress. 

The third argument in favor of differentiation seems to 
the teacher to be the most fundamental consideration of all. 



DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECT MATTER 1 27 

His own experience accords with the statement that children 
differ widely in capacity and his reading of the results of 
scientific studies has convinced him that the variation is 
even wider than casual observation would indicate. He 
knows that some children respond to material which others 
are unable to comprehend and that the ablest are often 
bored by subject matter which seems to fit the duller mem- 
bers of a class. It seems reasonable to believe that the 
amount and kind of subject matter should be adapted to the 
individual abiUties of the pupils in order to produce the 
best results. 

The objection that a child's capacities cannot be deter- 
mined with certainty seems pertinent but not conclusive. 
While children often develop in an unexpected way, careful 
observation during the elementary school period is not 
valueless. The intelligence tests, while not an infallible 
guide, are an important aid. He agrees that no teacher 
ought to take the responsibility of steering a pupil in a 
definite direction but this does not seem to him a valid 
reason for permitting no differentiation. If a teacher 
confines his efforts to a search for subject matter which will 
stimulate a pupil to greater effort or which will be of value 
in a course which the pupil has already marked out for 
himself, there would seem to be Kttle danger of harming 
him. The reaction of the pupil to the material seems more 
important than the material itself. 

The variation in pupils due to different environmental 
factors and variations in interest are facts of common 
observation. Our teacher can find no reason to doubt 
that the development of individual pupils would be fur- 
thered by taking these into account. He sees the diffi- 



128 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

culties involved in attempting to study home influences 
and other elements of environment which have helped to 
make the child what he is, but he is not satisfied with the 
contention that these conditions are too complicated for 
practical consideration. This appears to be a question of 
cost. If an elementary teacher has forty or more pupils 
in a class, or if a high school teacher has to deal with more 
than a hundred individuals, he will hardly be able to make 
a careful study of many of them. If, however, it appears 
to be a public necessity that education should be made more 
effective, and if failure to consider individual peculiarities 
can be shown to be a retarding factor, it seems probable 
that public sentiment can be developed in support of greater 
expenditure in the interest of better results. 

*'It is true," admits our teacher, "that pupils' interests 
are frequently transitory." He sees a danger in allowing 
individual whims to dominate school work, but he has in 
mind many cases in which pupils have done the hardest 
kind of work under the stimulus of their own purposes, and 
others in which insistence upon work which made no appeal 
to pupils produced effort chiefly by the teacher. He is 
inclined to think that enthusiastic effort in carrying out a 
plan which proves to be of temporary interest results in 
more development for the pupil than performance of tasks 
which seem more valuable to the adult, but which call 
forth Httle response from the child. 

Should any attempt be made to adjust the course of 
study to the probable length of the pupil's school career? 
The advocates of uniformity fix their attention upon what 
seems to them an ideal course, through which all the pupils 
who are capable of mastering it are to pass. In practice 



DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECT MATTER 1 29 

this scheme acts as a sieve. A very small proportion of the 
pupils graduate from the high school. The great majority 
drop out along the way. In very many of these cases, 
failure is the cause of withdrawal. Many could certainly 
be held in school longer if the work were better adapted to 
their needs. It would seem sensible to make experimental 
changes in the course with a view to keeping pupils longer 
in school and, since so many drop out early, to try to see 
that an individual shall get that which will be of most value 
to him. 

The argument that we cannot tell how long the school 
career of an individual pupil will be is true, of course, but 
the assumption that a pupil will remain until the end of the 
high school course will be wrong in a large majority of cases. 
With many pupils we can tell approximately how long they 
will remain. It seems probable that, by adjusting differen- 
tiated courses so as to provide for the needs of pupils of 
different types, we can eHminate some of the waste and 
increase the probability that an individual pupil will come 
in contact with the subject matter which is of most value 
to him. 

The objections of increased cost and difficulty of securing 
competent teachers are recognized by our teacher as real 
but not vital considerations. They can be overcome, he 
thinks, if the result aimed at is of sufficient importance. 

After such reflection as outHned above, the teacher 
formulates the following tentative propositions : 

I. The principal elements in education are the develop- 
ing child and the needs of society. The course of study is 
to be regarded not as an end in itseff, but as a means of 
developing the child toward his greatest happiness and 

E. T. PROB. 



130 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

usefulness. The aim should be to select subject matter 
in accordance with its value for individual development. 

2. There is no stage at which the needs of all members of 
a group of pupils are identical. Hence some variation in 
subject matter will probably be desirable at all stages. 

3. It is important that some ideas and facts be held in 
common in order that people may understand each other 
and may act in harmony. In acquiring this common knowl- 
edge, however, it may sometimes be economical for different 
individuals to make use of different material. 

4. The multipHcity of services required by society de- 
mands a variation in training individuals. The aim should 
be to have each individual fit himself for a Hf e of the greatest 
usefulness of which he is capable. 

5. The degree of differentiation should increase as the 
child grows older. Until he has discovered the field in 
which he is likely to be most useful, his education should 
not be narrowly limited. 

6. Material which arouses keen interest and earnest 
effort contributes more to a child's development than that 
which has been selected on logical grounds as the most 
important knowledge. 

7. The actual effect of subject matter upon a pupil's 
development and the actual use which he makes of it are 
better tests of its educational value than preconceived 
ideas of what it ought to accomplish. 

8. Practical difficulties of cost and deficiencies of edu- 
cational facilities and teaching ability interfere with a 
thoroughgoing application of the foregoing principles. The 
aim should be to overcome the obstacles as rapidly as pos- 
sible. 



differentiation of subject matter 13i 

Additional Principles Relating to Subject Matter 

11. It is probable that some things can be learned more econom- 
ically at one age than at another. We must try to discover 
the facts in regard to this question. 

12. Repetition is essential to learning. It is not good practice 
to select a body of important subject matter and divide it 
among the various years of the pupil's course. Important 
ideas should recur again and again. 

13. Material which is likely to be used by nearly everyone should 
have first place. Material which will be of use to a few 
should be left to be acquired by them as needed, unless 
they can acquire it without imposing it upon the rest of 
the class. 

14. There should be differentiation in accordance with abihties, 
interests, environment, future plans for education, voca- 
tional plans. Differentiation should increase as pupils 
become more mature. 

15. The determination of the most valuable subject matter for 
a given grade or locality or group of pupils requires thorough 
study and experimentation. 

16. Breadth of interest makes for happiness and efficiency. 
The range of subject matter must not be too closely limited. 

17. As a pupil becomes older, he should concentrate his attention 
more and more upon a certain field. 



Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 90. — A teacher is put on a committee to work out a 
course of study in geography for the elementary schools. As 
she begins to think about the problem, she finds that she has no 
very clear ideas of what should be assigned to a given grade. 
The only clue that she can think of is to find out what is done 
in other school systems and what is included in the commonly 
used textbooks. It occurs to her that a better basis for the 
selection of material ought to be used by the committee. 

Problem 91. — A teacher who is acquainted with both the 
kindergarten and first-grade work sees a problem concerning 



132 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 

the difference in demands made upon the two classes. In the 
kindergarten, effort is put mainly upon handwork, games, 
story plays, rhythm, and song. Progress is often rapid but 
there is no definite curriculum — merely the general aim of 
securing the natural development of the child through home and 
play experiences. In the first half of the first grade there are 
definite assignments; for example, in reading, the primer is 
to be completed and reviewed and a supplementary reader 
finished. 

Half of the class take the work easily and naturally. The 
other half struggle and need much pushing and drilling. The 
teacher feels that the transition from one t3^e of work to 
the other is too sudden. She finds plenty of sympathy for 
her point of view but nobody seems to know what changes ought 
to be made. 

Problem 92. — A third-grade teacher reads an article urging 
that children of all grades should be trained in habits and ideals 
leading to good citizenship. She is impressed by the author's 
view, and, as no definite suggestions are given as to work which 
would be appropriate for children of different ages, she under- 
takes to select suitable material for her grade. 

Problem 93. — A seventh-grade teacher has to make prepara- 
tion for a lesson on current events. 

Problem 94. — The time allotment for the fourth grade allows 
thirty minutes per week for nature study but makes no specific 
requirements. A teacher undertakes to make an outline of 
work for the year. 

Problem 95. — An eighth-grade teacher is asked by a parent 
to recommend a course for her daughter who is about to enter 
high school. The girl has average ability but no marked pref- 
erences. She will not go to college and it is not probable that 
she will have to earn her living. The subjects open to her in 
the first year at high school are Enghsh, Latin, French, Spanish, 
ancient history, algebra, commercial arithmetic, elementary 
science, bookkeeping, t3^ewriting, cooking, sewing, drawing. 
She can take at most five subjects and must ta,ke four. ^ 



DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECT MATTER 1 33 

Problem 96. — A course of study for the second grade provides 
that the work* center about the theme '' Primitive Life." A 
parent cannot see any sense in it and says that the schools are 
wasting time in silly fads. 

Problem 97. — A candidate for a high school science position 
is asked whether he would have the same subject matter in 
physics for boys and girls. 

Problem 98. — A common practice in junior high schools is 
to have the same course of study for all pupils except that a 
pupil is permitted to choose one or possibly two subjects from a 
short list of electives. In other schools, pupils are grouped 
according to ability or future plans, and subject matter is 
selected in accordance with the supposed needs of each group. 
A teacher in a school of the first t3^e declares at a gathering 
that the second plan is not sound. A representative of the 
second type of school feels that she ought to stand up for her 
own school, but doesn't feel sure of her ground. 

Problem 99. — A high school teacher of science makes the 
remark that science should not be studied in the elementary 
school. Pupils who have had some work in science feel that 
they know all about it and are unfitted for taking up the subject 
in a serious way. He wants to lay the foundation himself so 
that it will be right. 

Problem 100. — A teacher desires to modify the course of study 
which she considers unsuited to her class. She meets the ob- 
jection that if any of the pupils are later transferred to another 
school, they will not be able to work in the same grade. 

Problem 101. — One of the schools in a city school system 
draws its pupils almost entirely from homes in which little or 
no English is spoken and where American ideals are httle un- 
derstood. Poverty is common and children leave school early 
to help in the family support. A teacher thinks that the 
course of study prescribed for the city is not well adapted to 
this particular school. The superintendent asks her what 
changes she would recommend. 



CHAPTER VII 

PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

Relation of Method to Purpose; the Socialized 
Recitation; the Common Recitation; the Project 
Method 

Problem 102. — The principal of a school observes a lesson in 
a second-grade classroom. The teacher gives out sheets of 
colored paper to the pupils, first directing them to sit with folded 
hands until she tells them what to do. She has a pupil dis- 
tribute scissors. Then she holds a sheet up where most of the 
pupils can see it, places a ruler along one edge, and says : " Now 
watch and see just what I do." She then makes a dot opposite 
the two inch mark and says : " Now you may all do just as I 
did and then lay your pencils down." Most of the children do 
it instantly. Some do not understand and look to see what 
others have done. Some put the dot on the wrong edge. The 
teacher goes about examining each paper and directing those 
who have made mistakes. She rebukes one or two who guessed 
what was to come next and made more than one mark. It 
takes her several minutes to see that all the papers are right. 
Then she holds up the paper again and puts a similar mark on 
the opposite edge of the paper, after which the pupils do it, 
and have their work approved or corrected. Successive steps 
in making marks and ruling lines are carried out in the same way. 
After a half hour, the teacher says: " We shall have to stop 
now. Put your name on your paper." The principal learns 
that the lesson is to be continued " day after to-morrow." At 
that time he observes the same procedure, involving cutting 
and pasting. As the work nears completion and the children 
discover that the result is to be a box, the teacher has a good 
deal of trouble to prevent some of them from going ahead with- 
out waiting for her directions. Finally the boxes are completed. 
It would take close observation to detect any difference between 
them. 

134 



METHOD AND PURPOSE I35 

The principal says : "I have a few questions to ask about 
this lesson. What purpose did you have in view in planning and 
carrying out the work? Did the accomplishment come up to 
your expectations? Can you suggest any better method of 
accomplishing your purpose ? I wish you would consider these 
questions and discuss them with me to-morrow afternoon." 

The teacher spends very little time in preparation for 
the interview as she Ixas answers ready immediately. She 
considers the lesson very successful, having produced as 
good a set of boxes as she has ever seen in a second grade. 
She is somewhat curious to know what the principal has in 
mind but she feels quite capable of defending her method 
against any objections which he may raise. 

The principal opens the conference by saying : *'That was 
a remarkably fine set of boxes which your class produced. 
You were very successful in directing and controlling the 
class and getting a uniformly good product. I want to 
discuss the lesson with you because I know that your chief 
purpose was not to get boxes and I have some doubts as to 
whether there was as much education in the lesson as you 
might have accomplished. Now just what was your 
purpose?" 

"To train the pupils to use their h,-ands, to measure, draw, 
cut, and paste accurately," she replies. 

"Were you satisfied with the results ?'' 

"More than satisfied," she answers. "You say your- 
self that the results were remarkably good." 

"You misunderstood me," the principal objects. "I 
said the boxes were remarkably good, but they were not the 
results you set out to accomplish. The question is whether 
the children got as much training in the processes involved 
as they might have had in the time spent. You do not 



136 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

realize how much of those boxes was your own work and 
how Kttle the children contributed." 

'^Why I hardly touched the work/' she retorts indig- 
nantly. 

''True! but you directed every step. No child was 
allowed to go wrong. You did all the planning and prac- 
tically you did the work because, although you did not 
actually draw the lines or hold the scissors, you stood over 
the children and saw to it that the work was done as you 
intended. You alone knew what it was all about. The 
children were not trying to do their work accurately in 
order to accompHsh a purpose. They were simply obey- 
ing you." 

''But suppose I had allowed more freedom," the teacher 
objects. " Some of the children would have spoiled their 
paper at once, and we should have had very few decent 
boxes." 

"Very lilcely, but that would have done no harm, would 
it, if the children had learned more by making mistakes? " 

"Well, how would you have done it? " she asks rather 
caustically. 

"Oh! I couldn't do it very well, myself," he answers. 
"I could not handle little children as you do, but I should 
like to suggest a method which I wish you would try. I 
think you could get more development for the children. 
See what you think of it. 

In the first place, I think you should have a different 
purpose, or an additional purpose more important than the 
others. The chief purpose would be to give the children 
experience in making plans and carrying them out. To do 
this, they would need to learn to use rulers, cut and paste, 



METHOD AND PURPOSE 137 

and you would help them in this, but I think that, in trying 
to make something which they really wanted to make, most 
of the children would learn these processes more rapidly 
than if they are allowed merely to do what the teacher 
directs. 

It would be best to have the plans originate with the 
children and to allow different children to work on different 
projects, but in order to simpHfy the problem and keep it 
as much like your own as possible, let us suppose that every- 
one is to make a box. You might show the children several 
boxes of different colors, sizes, and shapes, telling them that 
the boxes had been made by some little friends of yours 
to hold Christmas candy, that you had thought they might 
like to make some like them. You will agree that the 
children would be eager to do so. They would choose the 
box which pleased them most. If any of the class wished 
to make a box different from any of the samples and if 
you thought that he could do it, you would encourage him 
to try, or possibly advise him to make one like the model 
first and afterward work out his own plan. 

Then would come the question of how to go to work, 
and here would be an opportunity for the children to think, 
which ought not to be lost by telling them too much. 
You might leave the boxes for a day or two where the 
children could examine them carefully before beginning 
the work. 

There might then be a discussion of the various steps. 
Some of the children will probably suggest that the boxes 
be unfolded so as to see just how the paper is cut. Some 
will see, without help, what measurements to make. The 
others can be given whatever help they need. They will 



138 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

appreciate the advantage of working out the problem first 
with cheap paper so as to avoid spoiling the good paper by 
making blunders. You ought not to be troubled by mis- 
takes, if a child is doing his best. Simply help him to dis- 
cover his error and avoid making the same mistake again. 

If you use this plan, you must expect much greater varia- 
tion in the product than you got the other day, but do you 
not think that the children will learn more?'' 

^'Yes," she admits. ^'I can see that there would be 
more opportunity for thinking and more training in self- 
reliance. The children would be more interested in the 
work. The chief difficulty that I see is in guiding forty 
children. I could do it with a small group but I am not 
sure that it would be practicable with a regular class. 
However, I will try it. I begin to see that there is not much 
educational value in the sort of handwork which I have 
been teaching and, if necessary, I can cut down the number 
of lessons and divide the class into two sections. Perhaps 
some of the abler children can act as assistants. At any 
rate, you have given me a new idea." 

Problem 103. — Miss D. observes a " socialized recitation." 
She is impressed with the mental activity of the children and 
with the freedom with which they express themselves. On 
trying the plan in her own class, she finds that pupils tend to 
use set forms of expression, criticize trivial faults, and show 
Uttle ability to see the important points of the subject or their 
relations. 

Miss D. discusses her dif&culties with other teachers. 
Most of them have observed so-called "socialized recita- 
tions" and a few have tried to introduce them in their 
own classes. All have observed the same faults which 



THE SOCIALIZED RECITATION 139 

disturb our teacher. Pupils say, one after another, such 
things as "Excuse me, John. You said 'river' and you 
should have said 'rivers.' " "I liked your reading, Mary, 
because you read with good expression and you stood well." 
The pupil criticized says : "Thank you, Helen ; thank you, 
Albert." 

One of the teachers exclaims : "It all seems so artificial. 
The children talk more than in the usual recitation and the 
teacher doesn't monopolize so much of the time. I suppose 
that is an improvement, but there is no spontaneity. The 
children aren't really developing initiative or cooperation 
or abiUty to think and speak for themselves. They are 
just copying the teacher, going through conventional 
motions without any real purpose. If that is all there is 
to the ' socialized recitation' I think it is a waste of time." 

"There are greater possibilities in the socialized recita- 
tion," Miss D. declares. " I know because I saw something 
entirely different when I visited Miss W.'s class at the Bur- 
ton School. The children were natural but very enthusiastic. 
They spoke freely and did the best thinking that I have 
ever seen children do. There was nothing parrot-like 
about it. They were thoroughly in earnest. It is possible 
to have a genuine social spirit in the classroom for I have 
seen it. I have missed something and I am going to find 
out what it is." 

Miss D. decides to observe closely a socialized recitation 
of the unsatisfactory type and compare it with Miss W.'s 
work, and see if she can detect the causes of the difference 
in results. She explains her purpose to one of the teachers 
and arranges to visit the latter's class. 

The lesson observed is on the geography of the Western 



140 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

States. The teacher calls upon one of the children to take 
charge. The girl goes to the front of the room and pro- 
ceeds to ask questions: *'Name the Western States, 
John!" John rises and says : ''California, Oregon, Wash- 
ington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, 
Arizona, New Mexico." Several children stand. John 
addresses them in turn: "Helen!" ''Excuse me, John, 
you said 'Utaw' and you should have said 'Utar.' " 
"Thank you, Helen. Henry!" "Excuse me, John, you 
left out Nevada." "Thank you, Henry. Louise !" "Ex- 
cuse me, John, you should have said : 'The Western States 
are California, Washington/ etc. You didn't give a com- 
plete sentence." "Thank you, Louise." Another question 
is asked and the same procedure follows. Presently the 
leader calls upon another pupil to take her place, and so it 
goes on. 

It is evident that the questions are all aimed to get a 
reproduction of the textbook statements. Some of the 
pupils invariably offer criticisms. Some take no part at 
all. The teacher occasionally says: "I noticed an error," 
or puts in a question. At the end of the period, she says : 
"For to-morrow you may take the next topic 'Industries 
of the Western States' on page 325." 

Miss D. then writes to Miss W. and asks permission to 
see another socialized recitation, preferably one in geog- 
raphy. Miss W. appoints a time. When Miss D. enters 
the classroom. Miss W. says: "Children, Miss D. has 
come to visit us again. She is interested in our work in 
geography. I think she would like to know just what 
we have been doing." One of the pupils promptly rises and 
says: "We are travehng all over the United States — 



THE SOCIALIZED RECITATION I41 

making believe, you know. Each of us has studied all 
about one of the states and he takes us with him to visit 
it. To-day, Arthur is going to take us to Colorado." 

Arthur then comes to the front of the room, bringing 
a pile of pictures, pamphlets, newspapers, etc. He pulls 
down the map of the United States and picks up some time- 
tables. Then he says: "We start from the Pennsylvania 
Railroad Station in New York at lo a.m. The fare to 
Denver is $75.00 and the berths on the sleeping car cost 
$20 more." Someone asks: "How much will the whole 
trip cost?" "Well," he replies, "we ought to allow at 
least five dollars a day besides the railroad fares back and 
forth, and we shall be gone three weeks." He does some 
figuring on the blackboard. "We ought to have $250 
anyway and we may want to buy some things, so I think 
we would better take $300." He points to the map and 
says : "We go across New Jersey, stopping at Trenton, and 
get to Philadelphia at 12.20. In the afternoon, we travel 
across Pennsylvania and get to Pittsburgh late in the eve- 
ning. We don't see anything of Ohio because we are asleep 
and when we get up in the morning we are nearly across 
Indiana. We get to Chicago at 8.00 o'clock in the morn- 
ing and stay there until i.oo o'clock, when we take a train 
on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad for 
Denver. That takes us through Illinois, Iowa, and Ne- 
braska. We cross the Mississippi at Burlington, and the 
Missouri at Council Bluffs and Omaha." 

"Do we go on a ferry ? " asks one of the class. "No, there 
are bridges at both places. In the morning we are in 
Nebraska and it takes us most of the day to get across the 
state. In the afternoon we begin to go up hill and they 



142 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

put on two engines. Late in the afternoon, we see a faint 
line of white, away on ahead, and someone says : ' There 
are the Rocky Mountains.' They are still a very long 
way off. The air is so clear that you can see a very long 
distance." 

One of the pupils interrupts: "My uncle told me a 
story about that," and then he tells the story of the man who 
had been so often deceived by distances in the clear Colorado 
air that he would not trust his judgment when he came to a 
little brook, two or three feet wide, but took off his clothes, 
prepared to swim. 

Arthur continues : "The mountains get nearer and nearer, 
and as we come to Denver, they seem almost on top of us, 
but in all the eastern part of the state the land is a prairie 
with ranch-houses once in a while and lots of cattle and a few 
cowboys riding ponies with high Mexican saddles. There 
are hardly any trees, just a few cottonwood poplars along 
the banks of streams." 

He passes around some pictures of the ranch country 
and answers questions about them. Then he announces 
the arrival in Denver and shows pictures and pamphlets 
describing the city. He tells about trips to Colorado 
Springs, Cripple Creek, Pueblo, and Grand Junction, 
visits a gold mine and a smelter, climbs Pikes Peak, and 
explains the irrigation systems. He shows pictures of the 
canyons and the snow-covered peaks and of camping 
parties with saddle and pack-ponies. The pupils have 
many questions to ask and information to give, which they 
have learned from parents or other relatives. The dis- 
cussion is adjourned until the next day and, in the mean- 
time, the pictures and reading matter, a riding quirt, a 



THE COMMON RECITATION I43 

sugar beet, and a lump of gold ore are put on a table where 
pupils can examine them at their leisure. 

Miss D. contrasts the two recitations. One of them 
seems artificial and barren, the other natural and full of 
life. As she thinks over what she has observed she is 
impressed with the difference in state of mind of the two 
sets of pupils. In one case all were attending chiefly to the 
words of the textbook. All knew the material or had read 
it at least. They were merely quizzing each other on a 
formal lesson. In the other case, the leader had a lot of 
fresh material to contribute, — more than he had time to 
give. He knew his subject and was eager to tell about it. 
The other pupils wanted to know. Naturally they asked 
questions. They couldn't help it. The leader wasn't 
trying to remember the answer to a question. He was 
trying to make a point clear. It was a genuine socialized 
recitation because it was a true social situation. In the 
first case, the pupils used stereotyped expressions and be- 
haved according to rule because there was nothing else for 
them to do. They had nothing in their minds but the words 
of the book and there was nothing to stimulate them to 
spontaneous behavior. They had either to keep still or 
act like parrots. 

Miss D. concludes that in order to have a socialized 
recitation, there must be subject matter which naturally 
calls for give and take between the pupils, something to be 
told or something to be learned which some of the class 
know and the others want to find out, or something involv- 
ing real difference of opinion which naturally leads to argu- 
ment. *' In other words," she says, "a good socialized 
recitation is not a recitation at all. It is a conversation." 



144 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

Problem 104, — A high school teacher uses the common recita- 
tion method, assigning a lesson for outside study, and calling 
upon pupils to recite at the next recitation. The teacher asks 
innumerable questions, sometimes changing the question three 
or four times before permitting a pupil to answer. Replies are 
usually meagre and poorly expressed. The teacher works hard 
but the pupils put forth Httle independent effort. Exami- 
nations induce vigorous " cramming," but tests given a few 
months after the completion of the course show that little has 
been retained. 

The teacher discusses the problem with the superintend- 
ent and is advised by the latter to read a book on methods 
of teaching. This book describes very clearly the common 
type of recitation which the teacher recognizes as his own. 
The author maintains that the indifference and poor re- 
sponse of the students are the natural results of the method 
employed. The teacher is taking all the responsibiHty. 
He alone knows what is to come next. For the pupils 
the course is simply a series of tasks upon which they will 
be quizzed. They have no purpose except to pass in the 
course and, in the case of a few, to get high marks. They 
are not eager to find out anything or to accomplish any- 
thing. The teacher is constantly trying to find out what 
they don't know and the only fun for them is to beat him 
at this game. The author says that the pupils ought to be 
taken into counsel in planning the course and assigning the 
work. There should be cooperation between teacher and 
pupils. The latter should be given more responsibility. 
The teacher should be guide and inspirer rather than slave- 
driver. 

The teacher is inclined to think that this is a pretty 
theory of one who has no practical knowledge of high school 
boys and girls. However, it interests him. It would be 



THE COMMON RECITATION 1 45 

fine if it could be done. He thinks about it a good deal 
and it influences his attitude toward his pupils, without 
his being fully conscious of the change. He begins to 
depend somewhat upon pupils to ask questions about 
points which they do not understand and uses more of the 
recitation period in discussing such points and developing 
new work, instead of quizzing the class upon every item of 
the lesson. Gradually the pupils come to see that, if they 
are to meet the tests satisfactorily, they must take respon- 
sibility for mastering the work as they go along, and, if 
they fail to ask for help where they need it, it is their own 
loss, not the teacher's. Toward the end of the term, he 
asks one day, on the spur of the moment, "How much can 
we take for next time?" and is surprised that the class is 
ready to take more than the usual assignment. One of the 
pupils says : "Let's finish the work as soon as we can so as 
to have some time for review." As the teacher refrains 
more and more from immediate answers to pupils' questions, 
discussion develops and pupil participation becomes more 
free and spontaneous. 

By the end of the term, the teacher has become thoroughly 
interested in the idea of cooperation between teacher and 
pupils and, on beginning work with new classes, he follows 
a more definite plan. On the opening day, he discusses 
with each class the scope of the course and suggests that, 
before the next lesson, the pupils look over the textbooks 
so as to get an idea of the work to be done. Then he gets 
one of the classes into a discussion on the way to organize 
the recitation periods so as to make the best use of the time. 
In his manner of speaking he makes himself one of the group 
about to undertake an interesting enterprise. It is agreed 

E. T. PROB. lO 



146 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

to organize as a study club. A chairman is appointed to 
preside at the class meetings and a program committee 
is appointed with the teacher as one of the members, to 
assign topics for study and discussion. 

As the work progresses, the pupils themselves call for 
tests to see how well they have mastered the topics studied. 
The teacher finds himself commending the class frequently. 
A few pupils need prodding but there is very little of the 
indifference and passive resistance which formerly exas- 
perated him. 

Problem 105. — A seventh-grade teacher finds her class to be 
very slow and inaccurate in the fundamental processes of arith- 
metic. She gives a great deal of practice, marks papers reli- 
giously, keeps pupils after school, and still finds that very little 
progress is made. She sets herself the task of devising a more 
effective method. 

The teacher thinks about her problem and discusses it 
with other teachers. She tries a few devices recommended 
by the others but sees no appreciable improvement. Her 
own efforts are not having the desired effect and the pupils 
themselves, although they seem to be trying, have no 
enthusiasm. The constant criticism and poor marks are 
apparently bringing about a hopeless indifference. She 
must find some way to get the pupils interested in the 
problem. 

Finally, at the suggestion of a friend, she writes to the 
teacher of methods in the normal school from which she 
graduated. He advises her to begin by giving some of the 
standard tests in the fundamental processes. He explains 
that these tests have been given to hundreds of classes and 
the results pubhshed. The children will probably be 



THE COMMON RECITATION 1 47 

interested to see how they stand in comparison with other 
seventh grades and how much progress they can make by 
the end of the term. The results of the tests will also show 
her more definitely where the weak spots lie. 

The teacher explains the tests to the class. The pupils 
are interested at once and exert themselves to make a good 
showing. The results are surprising in several ways. 
Although the average scores are below the standard in all 
the processes, they are not very much below it except in 
addition, while in division the class average is almost 
exactly the same as the standard. The most striking thing 
about the results is the wide variation in the scores of indi- 
vidual pupils. One pupil did more than twice as many 
examples as the class average, without making a mistake, 
while a few got hardly one right answer although they did 
less than the average number of examples. In general, 
those who worked most quickly were most accurate and 
those who did well in one process did well in the others. 

It is easy to interest the class in working to raise the class 
score above the standard. The teacher notices much better 
effort during the term and considerable improvement in the 
regular work in arithmetic. At the end of the term both 
teacher and class are eager to find out how much has been 
gained. 

It is found that the class averages have improved in all 
four processes but the gain is greatest in division and least 
in addition. The score in the latter is still below the 
standard. The variation in individual scores is even greater 
than before. Some have made remarkable gains, some have 
apparently stood stiU, and a few have lower scores than in 
the original test. 



148 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

The teacher concludes that the chief value of the tests 
has been to make the problem more definite and to arouse 
the interest of the pupils. On the whole, the improvement 
has come where apparently it was least needed. The weak 
spots have not been overcome and some time has been used 
in individual cases in acquiring a quite unnecessary degree 
of skill. It might better have been devoted to something 
more important. The problem now is to discover the causes 
of individual weaknesses and the means of correcting them. 

The teacher explains these conclusions to the class and 
proposes that they make their chief effort during the new 
term to improve the work where the tests have shown the 
poorest results. As a class, they will make their chief attack 
upon addition and as individuals, upon their particular 
weaknesses. She observes the work of individual pupils 
closely and makes several discoveries. The first day she 
keeps her eye on a pupil who is fairly accurate but extremely 
slow. She notices that he stops frequently in adding a 
column of figures and with vacant eyes seems to be going 
through some mental process. She watches him more 
closely. Suddenly she notices that his fingers are moving. 
A seventh-grade boy counting on his fingers ! It is unbe- 
lievable but a study of other members of the class reveals 
several who have the same habit. One who shows the same 
signs, but whose fingers are still, is finally detected in 
making movements of his foot as he counts, and later a 
girl confesses that she has for years got the result of a 
combination, which did not immediately come to mind, 
by touching her teeth with the tip of her tongue as she 
counted. 

Here was a definite interfering habit to be broken up. 



THE COMMON RECITATION 1 49 

These pupils must master the number combinations so that 
the responses will be automatic. The teacher sets them to 
work on tables and devises games in which an immediate 
answer to a number combination is necessary to success. 
After a few days' work of this sort, these pupils begin to gain 
speed. Another pupil is found to be very slow in writing 
numbers. He is helped by copying figures, timing himself, 
and trying to beat his record. Many prove to be able to 
add very short columns correctly, but make mistakes when 
the number of addends is increased beyond a certain point. 
They are denied, for a time, examples which are beyond 
their power and are encouraged to work at the limit of their 
ability, gradually increasing the length of the columns as 
they succeed in adding the shorter ones without mistake. 
With some, the errors are almost always made in ''carry- 
ing" from one column to the next. Special drill on this 
step gives them prompt improvement in accuracy. A few 
are victims of nervous excitement, calculating rapidly and 
accurately part way through an example and then ''going 
to pieces." This is reported to the normal school teacher, 
who in turn reports it to a psychologist. At the suggestion 
of the latter, these pupils are advised to rest for an instant 
once or twice in the course of the example. The effect 
is immediate. 

The success of pupils, who had for years been considered 
hopelessly inaccurate in arithmetic, naturally raises their 
spirits. A keen interest in individual progress is aroused. 
At the end of the term, the class score in addition is above 
the standard and nearly all the pupils have made progress 
in the processes in which they were especially weak. 

The teacher realizes that she has not fully solved the 



150 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

problem. Indeed one of the most prominent ideas which 
she has gained in the course of her study is the complicated 
nature of the mental processes involved in arithmetical 
computations. Nevertheless, she knows that she has made 
progress and has confidence that the causes of pupils^ 
difficulties can be discovered. She intends to continue on 
the same line, asking the help of experts in cases which 
baffle her own efforts. 

Problem 106. — A teacher of English takes up with her class 
Scott's *' Lady of the Lake." Her regular method is to call upon 
a pupil to read a short passage, after which errors are corrected, 
allusions and figures of speech explained, and grammatical 
questions are asked. She introduces a brief study of versifi- 
cation. Occasionally compositions are required on the subject 
matter of the poem. Very few of the pupils show much in- 
terest and some declare that they hate poetry. At a meeting 
of teachers, someone makes the statement that if first-year 
high school pupils do not enjoy the "Lady of the Lake," some- 
thing is wrong with the teaching. 

After the meeting, our teacher "button-holes" the man 
who made the remark with the intention of making him eat 
his words. She says: "I don't agree with what you said. 
I think mere enjoyment is not a sufficient motive for teach- 
ing Hterature. If we are simply to give the students a 
good time all we have to do is to give them ' Spicy Stories ' 
or the 'NeapoHtan Magazine' or the most absurd detec- 
tive stories. I beheve our job is to counteract all this 
trashy, impossible fiction by making them acquainted with 
things that are uplifting." 

"So do I," says the other. "I beheve that the 'Lady of 
the Lake ' is good material for the first year of high school 
but it is of no use to teach it unless it interests the pupils. 



A METHOD IN LITERATURE 151 

If they are indifferent to it or bored by it, our time is wasted. 
My point is that it must be taught in such a way that pupils 
will enjoy it." 

"Don't you think," says our teacher, "that everyone 
ought to know the masterpieces of Enghsh literature?" 

"That all depends, I think, upon the effect of the knowl- 
edge. Merely knowing that Scott wrote the ' Lady of the 
Lake ' and knowing that one has studied it do not seem to 
me sufficient reasons for spending much time on the book. 
That is a good deal like pride of family — a sense of superi- 
ority because one is related to a famous person, without 
being any better in conduct because of the relationship. 
That kind of Hterary study produces intellectual snobbish- 
ness. To be of any great value, a knowledge of the master- 
pieces must have some real effect upon a person, make him 
finer in some way, make him behave differently than if he 
did not possess it." 

"But I don't see any better way to present the poem to 
the pupils," our teacher goes on, "than to teach them what 
I know about it. I get keen pleasure in reading poetry 
and I am sure that I get an intellectual, even a moral inspira- 
tion from it. Part of my enjoyment comes from ability 
to recognize the allusions, knowledge of the forms of verse, 
acquaintance with the Hfe of the author, and even my back- 
ground of linguistic and grammatical knowledge. I have 
tried to give the pupils knowledge of this sort as it applies 
to the ' Lady of the Lake ' so that they will be able to appre- 
ciate it, but they don't seem to care for anything that takes 
real study and thought." 

"I know just how you feel," the other replies. "I have 
had the same experience, but I have come to the conclusion 



152 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

that it is a mistake to assume that children ought to like 
what we like and for reasons which appeal to us. In the 
first place, we probably have more taste for literature than 
the average person, otherwise we would not be teaching 
EngKsh. Furthermore, we have mature minds and a 
background of literary knowledge which can be acquired 
only by years of study. If we simply emphasize the things 
which appeal to us, or if we try to get pupils to understand 
the poem as we do, we shall shoot over their heads and 
probably give them a distaste for the poem which we want 
them to appreciate." 

By this time, our teacher is beginning to think that this 
man may not be so far off the track as she thought. She 
asks, ''Well, how would you teach it?" 

"My plan," he answers, "is to formulate carefully the 
purposes which I want to accomplish and then try to find 
a method of presentation which will produce the desired 
result. If one method doesn't work I try another." 

At this point the speaker is interrupted and carried off 
by the chairman of the meeting, and our teacher has no 
opportunity to resume the conversation. Nevertheless, 
she has caught his idea and proceeds to think it out. 
"What do I want to accomplish in teacliing the ' Lady of the 
Lake'? " she asks herself. She ponders this question and 
jots down the thoughts which occur to her. Afterward 
she arranges them like this : 



My Purposes in Teaching the "Lady oe tee Lake" 

I. To stimulate ideals and aspirations: courage, patriotism, 
unselfishness, generosity, pure love. 



A METHOD IN LITERATURE 1 53 

2. To give an appreciation of Scottish character: hardihood, 
clan spirit, love of country. 

3. To develop an appreciation of natural beauty, and life in 
the open. 

4. To develop enjoyment of good poetry and a desire to read 
more. 

5. To broaden the pupils' vocabulary and ideas. 

The teacher gives much thought to the method of pro- 
ducing these effects. She realizes, in the light of her recent 
discussion, that it will not do to make a task of the poem. 
She must present it so that it will produce exhilaration. 
She concludes that the acquirement of new words and ideas 
will have to be a by-product, rather than an object of direct 
study. 

When she meets her new class, she begins by saying that 
they are about to read a poem which has become famous 
and has given pleasure to thousands of people. The scene 
is laid in Scotland and the poem was written by a man who 
was a great lover of his country. She tells very briefly 
about Scott's life and shows his picture. Then she shows 
photographs of the Scottish Highlands and makes such 
places as Ben Lomond and Loch Katrine realities in the 
minds of the pupils. She tells them a little about clan 
loyalty and the strife between Highland and Lowland. Fi- 
nally she speaks of the bards and explains that this poem 
is written as though sung by one of these bards. Then 
she begins to read the poem, occasionally giving a word of 
explanation, but putting all her effort into the reading, 
watching her class and striving to make them respond to 
the rhythm of the verse and the pictures of wild life and 
action of the characters in the story. 

The first lesson is promising. The interest and enjoy- 



154 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

ment of the pupils is evident. At the end of the period, 
the teacher says : ''If you will finish reading the first canto 
yourselves, I will read the next one to you to-morrow." 
The reading proceeds rapidly. Many of the pupils read 
ahead. There are occasional questions and discussions 
started on the initiative of students, but the teacher makes 
no attempt to deal with details of language or allusion, 
except when questioned. She does most of the reading 
which is done in class, but occasionally permits a pupil 
who has read ahead and shown unusual appreciation to read 
for a time. 

In a few days, the poem has been completed. Pupils 
are enthusiastic. They discuss the characters and some 
have voluntarily learned passages which especially appealed 
to them. They are quite ready to go over the poem again 
more carefully, in order to understand passages which were 
not perfectly clear. 

During this second reading, the assignments are shorter. 
There is more discussion and frequent use of the dictionary. 
Pupils are encouraged to prepare passages which they like 
best to read to the class. They select favorite bits for 
memorizing. Finally some theme writing is done, but the 
teacher is careful to allow pupils to select subjects which 
really interest them and even includes in a Hst of suggested 
titles some which have nothing to do with the ''Lady of the 
Lake." Her purpose in doing this is to avoid the possibihty 
of dulling the edge of a pupil's enjoyment of the poem. 

When the work is finished and she refers to her statement 
of purposes, she is convinced that she has come nearer to 
accompKshment of what she set out to do than she has ever 
done before — with this book, at least. The oral and 



THE PROJECT METHOD 1 55 

written discussions have shown that many of the pupils have 
gained real inspiration and some have already asked for 
other poems "as good as this one." A few have written 
some passable verses in the style of the "Lady of the Lake." 
The new ideas and new words have been used freely in 
themes and discussions. 

Problem 107. — At a teachers' meeting, the principal of a 
school says to the teachers : " Everybody seems to be talking 
about the ' project method.' I don't know much about it 
myself but I think we ought to look into it and see whether it 
has any value for us. I wish you would all find out as much 
as you can about the method, and experiment with it if you 
please. Then we can discuss it at a later meeting." 

At the close of the meeting, a discussion is started among 
several of the teachers. A primary teacher says: "As 
nearly as I can find out, the project method is letting chil- 
dren do as they please. A friend of mine told me about a 
first-grade teacher who, she says, is 'dippy' on the subject. 
She has what she calls a *free period,' when the children 
do what they like. They build with blocks, or make things 
with paper and paste, or draw, or do anything else that they 
please. They simply choose what they want to do, help 
themselves to material, and go to work — or rather play, I 
should call it. I don't believe there is any sense in that 
sort of thing in school. There is time enough for play out 
of school hours. If children are to do what they please, 
what is the use of a teacher?" 

Another says: "That's not project method. In the 
Canfield schools, they claim to be basing all their work on 
projects. One class studies pottery, another the silk 
industry, another paper-making, etc. Take paper-making, 
for example: The class learn how paper is made and 



156 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

make some themselves, instead of the usual work in 
manual training. The language work is based on paper- 
making. They read about it and write compositions 
on the subject, and do arithmetic problems about mak- 
ing and selling paper. The teachers claim that the 
children are much more interested in their work than when 
they have unrelated lessons in reading, language, arith- 
metic, and manual training, that they do more thinking, 
talk and write more freely." 

''I don't see how they can cover the ground in the regular 
subjects that everyone ought to know," interposes one of 
the teachers. "Neither do I," answers the previous speaker, 
''but they claim that they do." 

Another says : ''I know a case in which the whole school 
worked on the same project. They wanted to send some 
dolls to children in the European countries which were 
devastated by the war. The special class made wooden 
dolls and each class had one. They made complete outfits 
of clothing and httle trunks to pack them in. The parents 
became interested and contributed material, and the 
janitor made dolls' furniture for the lowest classes, where 
the children could not do it themselves. One of the teachers 
told me that the children worked like beavers and did better 
sewing than anyone would have thought possible. They 
wouldn't tolerate poor work but insisted on ripping out big 
stitches and doing the work over until it satisfied the class. 
She said the project did more than anything that had ever 
happened before to develop a sense of unity and pride in the 
school." 

One of the group says : "I thought that 'project method' 
was just a new name for the socialized recitation. The 



THE PROJECT METHOD 1 57 

purpose seems to be to have the children more active, to 
have them take the lead rather than follow directions, and 
to think and talk more for themselves." 

"The project method reminds me of the elephant and the 
four blind men," laughs Miss P., who has been merely Hsten- 
ing. "What it is depends upon the direction from which 
you approach it. I'm completely muddled." That eve- 
ning she goes to the library and takes home a book on the 
project method. For the next few days, during her spare 
time, she reads and thinks, attempting to apply the author's 
conception of project teaching to the illustrations given 
at the recent discussion. Finally she exclaims: "Eureka! 
The wall, the tree, the snake, and the rope are all merged 
in the elephant. The essential idea in the project method 
is purpose. We learn most rapidly and most effectively when 
we are trying to carry out a purpose which we earnestly 
wish to accomplish, and, as the author says, one of the 
most valuable habits which one can acquire is that of trans- 
lating desire into purpose and 'seeing it through.' The 
project method, as I see it now, changes the whole scheme 
of education. Instead of a process of pouring in or molding, 
education consists of guiding the child in accomplishing his 
purposes. We must help him to get hold of valuable 
purposes and show him how to work them out in the most 
economical ways. That is our job ; but we must be sure 
to give him a chance to work under the stimulus of his own 
purpose. 

All of those ideas of project teaching which the other 
teachers spoke of the other day fit into this conception. 
The free period is an obvious method of giving children a 
chance to form a purpose and carry it out. There are 



158 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

doubtless practical difi&culties in making the free period 
valuable, but the idea is consistent with the aim of project 
teaching. The paper-making is a cooperative project. 
If the children really become sufficiently interested in it 
to acquire a real purpose to work it out, it accords with the 
new plan of education. The doll-project is cooperation 
involving more people. The testimony indicates that it 
produced in the children the right mental attitude. The 
socialized recitation, if it involves genuine purpose and 
activity on the part of the children, is one type of project 
work." 

A week or two later, the principal calls for teachers' 
ideas on the project method and Miss P. explains her view 
and how she acquired it. "I can't see anything new in the 
scheme except the name," says one. ''We have always 
done such things as you mention. I remember that nearly 
twenty years ago we used to make butter in the fourth grade. 
What is the sand table work which we have been doing 
for years but projects?" 

"It isn't altogether new," Miss P. replies. "I suppose 
there have always been teachers who have succeeded in 
having their children work with a purpose, but I doubt if 
many of them knew what they were doing. They didn't 
use a thought-out method and much of the time they simply 
heard lessons. Besides, they were rare teachers. I believe 
it is a new idea to most of us. At any rate, now that I 
understand it, I think I can use the method consistently 
and deliberately, rather than once in a while by accident." 

"I can't see why you call it a method," objects another. 
"It seems to me that you are proposing to change the 
subject matter, abandoning the traditional outline of facts 



THE PROJECT METHOD 1 59 

and processes, or at least changing the order in which they 
are taught, and substituting larger units of thought in which 
the various items of knowledge come in as they are needed." 

"That isn't the way I look at it," says Miss P. " I don't 
believe it is chiefly a question of subject matter. Of course 
we must have projects which appeal to the children, but 
the fundamental idea is purpose. The subject matter is 
chosen in accordance with that principle. To me, it is a 
method of education by which we stimulate purposing and 
develop abiHty to carry out purposes. It involves, for the 
teacher, keeping in the background when her direction 
would interfere with the pupils' effort, and giving help and 
advice when this will help the pupils to gain power. The 
mastery of subject matter is not the important thing for 
the teacher, although it may be, at times, for the child. 
You spoke of abandoning the traditional material. I don't 
believe that is an essential feature of the method. In so far 
as the acquirement of this material is necessary, the acquire- 
ment may become a project in itself. If the pupil sees 
the need of it and purposes to master subject matter or a 
new process, it becomes a project for him. Learning the 
multiplication table or preparing for college entrance exam- 
inations may be real projects, if the pupil undertakes to 
accomplish these things instead of working under the direc- 
tion of a teacher who has determined that he shall accom- 
pHsh them. We teachers have been monopolizing purposes. 
We have got to share them with the pupils." 

After this meeting several of the teachers try to make use 
of the project method. A month later experiences are 
reported and discussed at the teachers' meeting. One 
says: "My chief difficulty is to tell how far the teacher 



l6o PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

ought to go in starting a project. Ideally, I suppose, the 
projects ought to come from the children — they want to 
do something and we guide them as they carry out their 
plans so that they may learn as much as possible — but 
practically I find that comparatively few have projects 
to suggest. Is it any better to have a class work on a 
project initiated by one of their number than on one which 
is intrinsically more valuable, proposed by the teacher?" 
Before anyone can answer, someone remarks: "If you 
wait for the children to decide what they want to do some 
of them will never do a thing except copy someone 
else." 

Then Miss P. says: "I think we can answer such ques- 
tions of procedure if we keep in mind our general purpose 
of education and the special aim set up in the project 
method. We want all the children to make the best 
possible growth and, to further this,, we want everyone, as 
nearly as possible, to work with a purpose of his own. It 
does not matter where he gets his purpose, if he really has 
it and if it is one that will mean growth for him. It would 
be absurd, I think, to sit still and wait for the spirit to move 
a child before we did anything. How did we ourselves get 
hold of the purposes which have proved to be of greatest 
value to us? If we attempt to analyze them, I imagine 
that we shall find that in a good many cases they resulted 
from suggestions made by others, sometimes from direct 
advice. Sometimes we began to do what somebody else 
was doing and presently became intensely interested. Even 
in cases where the fully formed purpose was the result of 
deliberation, most of the ideas involved in it probably 
came from others. In the case of a cooperative enterprise 



THE PROJECT METHOD l6l 

it is obviously impossible that all the participants should 
have initiated the plan. 

Perhaps the most important thing that the teacher can 
do is to get children interested in doing worth while things. 
She should, I think, take advantage of desires expressed 
by the children, offering suggestions for making them more 
valuable or more practicable, but she should often make 
the first suggestions herself. I find that such a suggestion 
followed by discussion usually results in a plan which the 
children consider their own. The only danger, as far as I 
can see, is the possibiHty of forcing on the children some- 
thing which does not, in fact, produce a genuine purpose. 
When this happens the teacher should promptly drop the 
plan and find a better one." 

A teacher says: ^'I can't seem to prevent a few of the 
children from doing all the thinking and most of the talk- 
ing." Several suggestions are offered for meeting this 
difficulty. The proposal to deny such pupils opportunity 
to speak or to give them minor tasks is disapproved because 
it would retard their own growth. The best suggestion 
is to make individual pupils or groups of pupils especially 
responsible for definite parts of the project. One says: 
" I doubt whether we can prevent certain pupils from taking 
the lead or whether we ought to try to do so. We need 
leaders. The work of the world is done under leadership, 
and, while we ought to try to have everyone do as important 
a part as he can, we shall have to expect a few to play the 
principal roles." 

*'What shall we do with the pupils who shirk or who are 
inert? " asks a teacher. Miss P. answers : ''I have thought 
about that, and I think our general purpose suggests the 

E. T. PROB. — 11 



1 62 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

answer. I can't believe that a child will get his best growth 
through idleness. I should try to get him interested in 
the game, but if I failed, I should make him work. Until 
he gets a purpose of his own, he will have to follow mine. 
I suspect that there may be some people who ought always 
to be guided by another's purpose, but we ought not to 
assume that in any case until we have used every effort 
to get the youngster moving under his own steam." 

Someone says: "I wonder if 'project method' will be 
like 'correlation,' 'motivation,' and 'socialized recitation' — 
an educational fashion of a year or two." The principal 
replies: "I have no doubt that it will, in the sense that 
you mean. It will probably be talked about and will 
monopoHze the programs at . educational gatherings and 
teachers who like to be in fashion will be project methodist 
fanatics for a season and then the term will fall into disuse. 
However, I think the idea will persist. The underlying 
ideas of the terms which you mentioned are probably 
having more real influence upon teaching to-day than when 
the names were in everybody's mouth. Indeed, they 
have all contributed to this new method. I believe that 
the idea underlying the project method is a real discovery 
and will do much to improve teaching. Perhaps if we give 
our attention to the idea and use the name sparingly, we 
shall be less inclined to abandon it when the next panacea 
is advertised." 

Principles Relating to Method 

I. Method should be adapted to purpose. It is easy for a 
teacher to fix attention upon method to such an extent as 
to lose sight of the purpose. 



PRINCIPLES RELATING TO METHOD 1 63 

2. That method is best which accompHshes the purpose with a 
minimum expenditure of time. 

3. The teacher should aim to develop methods by which ail 
the pupils of her class are stimulated to do- their best,, to 
work in response to their own motives, and to do their 
own thinking. 

4. Methods should be adapted to the age of the children, and 
as far as possible to individual peculiarities. With Httle 
children, there should be opportunity for much physical 
activity. In all grades there should be more doing and less 
mere listening and reciting than common practice permits. 

5. A teacher must guard against the employment of the super- 
ficial form of a popular method without having studied its 
full significance with reference to purpose and to child 
psychology. 

6. One should examine one's methods in the light of results. 
If results are poor, don't blame the pupils, but try to find out 
where the method is at fault. 

7. Repetition is essential to learning, but monotony kills inter- 

est. Variation is necessary to keep attention at a maximum. 

8. It is wasteful to attempt to teach too many things at once. 
It is better to accept crude results temporarily than to try 
to correct everything according to a standard which is be- 
yond the pupils. 

Problems tor the Reader to Solve 

Problem 108. — A common method of teaching spelling is to 
assign, say, ten words from the spelling book, give the pupils ten 
minutes or so to study them, and then dictate the words. Pupils 
mark each other's papers. In a class whose teacher uses this 
method, more than half the class usually write perfect papers. 
Some have four or five mistakes. In a test at the end of the 
term, very few get a hundred per cent, one gets twenty-four 
per cent and half the class falls below eighty per cent. In written 
papers in composition and on examination papers there are many 
mistakes. 

Problem 109. — A sixth-grade teacher usually introduces a 
new lesson in history or geography by having the children read 
the new material aloud from the textbook, different pupils 



1 64 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

reading one paragraph each in turn. The facts are not grasped 
or retained very well and pupils show no power to apply their 
knowledge to questions which do not call for direct reproduction 
of the author's statements. 

Problem 110. — A mathematics teacher uses the following 
method regularly. New topics are explained, problems from the 
textbook are assigned, usually in the order given in the book. 
At the next lesson the same problems are put on the board, each 
pupil doing one. The teacher corrects errors and pupils are 
expected to compare results with their own work. Papers are 
handed in and marked by the teacher. Many of the pupils 
continue to be inaccurate. Investigation shows that some 
pupils spend 15 minutes on an assignment, others as much as 
two hours. The teacher occasionally finds papers that are 
identical, although having many mistakes. 

Problem 111. — A teacher finds that there is a great variation 
in ability in her class in arithmetic. Some of the class find the 
work very easy. Others are failing and making little progress 
in spite of a large amount of drill. The teacher feels that the 
work is not meeting the needs of these pupils, but does not see 
how to do better in the time available. 

Problem 112. — A teacher discovers a new device for drill 
which arouses intense interest. Pupils gain surprisingly for 
a few days, but gradually lose interest and seem to be making 
no progress. 

Problem 113. — A contest arouses keen interest but the pupils 
of least ability fail first and take their seats. Those who need 
practice least get the most. The teacher tries to devise a plan 
which will retain the interest and at the same time stimulate 
all the pupils. 

Problem 114. — A teacher of foreign language whose whole 
training and experience has been in accordance with a gram- 
matical approach to language study and who enjoys grammatical 
analysis, goes to work in a school whose principal favors the 
'' direct method." She thinks the new method slovenly, a 
device for making language study easy. " Pupils trained in it 
know nothing definitely," she says. She is sure she is right, 
and yet cannot convince the principal. 



PROBLEMS OF METHOD 1 65 

Problem 115. — A prize is offered to the pupil who gets the 
highest marks for the term. Some pupils show great interest 
in their marks and parents complain that the teacher is showing 
favoritism. Most of the pupils are indifferent because they 
know they cannot hope to win. 

Problem 116. — In a primary grade, the teacher has hygienic 
practices and good manners dramatized. A parent who sees 
children making believe to brush their teeth and chewing imag- 
inary oatmeal thinks it a silly performance — mere play. 

Problem 117. — A common method of teaching language 
(English) is to have pupils learn rules and definitions of language 
elements — such as punctuation, grammatical and rhetorical 
principles — and write many exercises appyling rules. Pupils 
are, of course, expected to apply this training in the writing of 
compositions. Compositions show many errors and little origi- 
nality. 

Problem 118. — A teacher is much concerned because her 
pupils make so many errors in oral language. She constantly 
corrects them, but this seems to have little effect. Pupils seem 
to be incurably careless. 

Problem 119. — A teacher of drawing uses many lessons in 
which pupils draw from an object such as a spray of flowers or 
leaves. Most of the pupils are only mildly interested and some 
are bored. The superintendent wants to know what she is aiming 
at in such lessons. She replies that she is aiming to develop 
an appreciation of the beautiful. He expresses doubt as to 
whether this is an economical way to accomplish the purpose, 
and asks her to devise a method which will develop apprecia- 
tion more directly than by careful copying of beautiful objects. 

Problem 120. — In current discussion of educational methods, 
much stress is laid upon the pupil's motive in doing his work. 
A teacher says : " That sounds well, — but what motive has a 
pupil for studying the geography of South America — he must 
know something about it, and he might as well get to work and 
learn it, just because he is required to learn it." 



1 66 PROBLEMS OF METHOD 

Problem 121. — A pupil makes a mistake in giving the results 
of a combination of numbers, for example 7X9. The teacher 
says with a question mark in her tone " 7 times 9? " The pupil 
repeats his answer. " Try again," she says, " you certainly 
know that." He gives another wrong answer. " Think," 
she says, " 7 times 9 ! " After one or two more attempts, he 
hits on the right answer. A supervisor who is observing the 
lesson, remarks that it would have been better to tell the child 
the right answer at once. This puzzles the teacher because she 
has always felt that it was a mistake to tell a child anything 
which he could get for himself. 

Problem 122. — A certain teacher relies to a great extent upon 
marks as an incentive to effort. Pupils who lose the place are 
given *'zero." Some of the pupils compete very vigorously for 
high marks and sometimes complain that they have not been 
marked fairly. The poorest students seem indifferent. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapters IH, 

V-VIII, XIH, XIV. 
La Rue, D. W., Psychology for Teachers, Chapters IX-XH. 
Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, Briefer Course, Part II. 
McMurry, F. M., How to Study. 
Earhart, L. B., Types of Teaching, Chapters IV-XV. 
Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter XIV. 
Miller, I. E., Education for the Needs of Life, Chapter V. 
Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, Chapters XII, XIII, XV. 
King, I., Education for Social Efficiency, Chapters XIV, XV. 
Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters 

IV-XII. 
Stevens, R., The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction. 



CHAPTER VIII 
PROBLEMS DUE TO VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 

Language Handicap; Group Teaching; 
Rapid Promotions 

Problem 123. — In a certain grade, there are a few children of 
foreign birth who have very little command of English. They 
cannot express themselves well, and have great difficulty in 
getting the meaning from books which are easily understood 
by the other children. In other respects they are, on the whole, 
up to grade. One or two of them are far ahead of the class in 
practical arithmetical ability. 

The teacher has been patient with these little foreigners. 
She realizes that they are handicapped and she desires sin- 
cerely to do as much as possible for them, but her efforts are 
very discouraging. They keep making the same awful mis- 
takes in speech, no matter how often they are corrected. 
They get the most absurd ideas when called upon to study 
a textbook. In oral reading, they mispronounce words 
constantly and show that they do not understand what 
they are reading although they cheerfully blunder ahead. 
And their compositions! ''Impossible'^ is the only word 
for them. At times, she is convinced that they are "plain 
stupid," and yet occasionally flashes of unexpected intelli- 
gence prevent her from abandoning the task as hopeless. 

She shows another teacher a composition written by one 
of the foreigners and they have a good laugh over it. "Did 
you ever visit Angelo's home?" asks the other. "No." 

167 



1 68 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS ' ABILITY 

"Let's go together and call on the family. I went to see 
them last year, when the older sister was in my class. They 
are very interesting." 

The visit is a revelation to our teacher. She finds a 
family of twelve and three boarders besides, in a little house 
which would have been snug quarters for three or four 
according to her way of thinking. The mother and grand- 
mother do not understand a word of English and the father 
has very little advantage of them in this respect. Italian 
is evidently the language of the home for children as well 
as adults. The cordial welcome touches her heart. 
Angelo's teacher is a guest of honor. With the older sister 
as interpreter, they talk about the children and about school. 
She starts to tell about the boy's difficulties because of his 
poor command of English, but soon realizes that she is not 
making herself clear and is glad of it when she sees how 
proud the family is of Angelo and how wonderful it is to 
them that the children can speak the foreign tongue. 

Our teacher goes home with a greater sympathy and a 
new respect for her foreign-born pupils. Instead of think- 
ing of them as dullards, she finds herself wondering how, 
amidst such surroundings, they have made so much prog- 
ress. This new point of view affects her treatment of 
the children. Unconsciously, she encourages and praises 
where before she had often shown disappointment. The 
children respond to this treatment by renewed enthusiasm 
and greater efforts to please. The teacher visits other 
homes and a real understanding and affection grows up 
between her and the little foreigners. 

The English problem is still unsolved, but she goes to 
work upon it with determination. She feels that these chil- 



LANGUAGE HANDICAP 1 69 

dren, some of whom are retarded several years already and 
will probably leave school at fourteen, ought not to fail 
of promotion if she can possibly prevent it. To avoid 
waste of time for the class by having the other pupils listen 
to the stumbling oral reading of the Itahans, she takes the 
latter by themselves while the others are studying. She is 
soon convinced that the reading matter of the grade is too 
difficult and she gets easier books from the lower grades. 
Gradually this leads to differentiation within the small 
group. Some make better progress than others and are given 
more difficult books. The teacher and pupils become in- 
terested in the individual problems of the several members 
of the group in mastering oral reading. 

One day, without premeditation, she asks one of the abler 
American children to help one of the foreigners in a lesson 
involving study from a textbook. This works so well that 
she adopts it as a regular method. 

She frequently says to herself : *^If I only had more time 
for the foreign group ! If I had them alone, I could put 
twice as much time on English. They could afford to give 
less time to other subjects. English is the important 
study for them." The difficulty is that time devoted to 
special work with the foreign group must be taken from the 
rest of the class. "There ought," she thinks, "to be a 
special teacher who could give her time to small groups of 
pupils who need special help." She makes this suggestion 
to the principal who agrees that it is a good idea which he 
will support. Until it can be brought about, he adopts 
her alternative plan of giving the foreigners double time in 
Enghsh by sending them into the lower grade during its 
English period. 



170 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 

Problem 124. — In an eighth grade, pupils vary in age from 
eleven to sixteen. The youngest are the ablest in most school 
work. Tests show that some of the class have no more ability 
in certain subjects than the average sixth-grade pupil. 

The tests convince the teacher that her usual method of 
teaching the class as a whole is very poorly adapted to the 
needs of pupils at the two extremes of the class. On the 
one hand, the abler pupils are marking time as they go over 
work which calls for no effort. They are missing the growth 
which comes through attacking real diflSiculties. On the 
other hand, the pupils of least ability are forming habits 
of inaccuracy and superficiality. They are skimming over 
work which they do not really understand and constantly 
making mistakes in problems which are too difficult for 
them. 

''This method," thinks the teacher, "does not fit our 
ideal of helping all children to make the most of themselves. 
It is calculated, rather, to make the abler o!nes mediocre 
and to spoil the chance of the slower ones for fitting them- 
selves to do well what they are capable of doing." 

She goes over her Hst of pupils and, using the results of 
tests and other knowledge of individual abilities, selects 
those who are most likely to suffer from mass teaching. 
About one sixth of the class falls in each of the two groups 
at the upper and lower extremes. The remaining two 
thirds, while differing considerably in ability and attain- 
ment, are nearly enough alike to be taught as a group with- 
out serious loss. Taking first the ablest group, she selects 
two pupils of exceptional ability and good physical develop- 
ment and suggests to the principal that they be promoted at 
once to the high school. "They can learn nothing in this 



LANGUAGE HANDICAP 171 

grade," she says, "and I am sure that in a few weeks they 
will be leading the high school class." 

Several of the others she designates as tentative candi- 
dates for a double promotion at the end of the term. These 
pupils are excused from recitations and lesson assignments 
which would involve no growth for them. The teacher 
takes them as a group for brief lessons in Latin and allows 
them to work by themselves much of the time on this sub- 
ject and on algebra. As all of these pupils have good 
ability, they are able to forge ahead with their books as a 
guide and with occasional help and encouragement from the 
teacher. The result is that this small group of pupils 
loses its listlessness and becomes energetic. At the end of 
the term, a considerable part of the first term's work in 
Latin and algebra has been accomplished and, with some 
study during the summer, most of the pupils are successful 
in gaining a double promotion. 

To a few of the abler group who are immature or physi- 
cally frail, no high school work is assigned. They spend 
the time, when the class is working on material which would 
not be of value to them, in stimulating reading of standard 
hterature, history, science, travel, etc. One pupil who is in 
poor health is advised, after a conference with the principal 
and the mother, to come to school only in the morning and 
to spend the afternoon out of doors. 

Taking the Ust of pupils who have least abihty, the 
teacher finds two who apparently cannot make much prog- 
gress without a good deal of individual help. She arranges 
with the principal to have them spend an hour each day 
with a special teacher who gives a part of her time in aiding 
backward pupils. The rest she teaches as a group in work 



1^2 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS ABILITY 

which they especially need and which they cannot have with 
the main body of the class. She varies lesson assignments 
so that, as nearly as possible, pupils will have work which 
calls for their best effort but which is not beyond their 
powers. She tries to develop pride in doing each job well 
and in making progress in overcoming individual difhculties. 

Gradually, in the formal processes such as spelling, 
writing, arithmetical operations, and in silent reading, the 
whole class learns to work individually to a considerable 
extent, each one trying to progress as rapidly as possible. 
The work is divided into convenient sections and any pupil 
is free to present himself for a test on a section whenever 
he thinks he has mastered it. 

In such subjects as literature, science, and civics, in- 
volving discussion, the whole class meets as a group. Some 
contribute much more than others and there is considerable 
variation in lesson assignments, the amount of individual 
reading and the difficulty of special topics assigned for 
study being adapted to the abihties of the individual 
pupils. The teacher feels that in such subjects as these, 
pupils gain much from exchange of ideas and from partici- 
pation in a social group even if they differ in grasp of the 
subjects discussed. 

Problem 125. — In a first-year high school class, the teacher 
finds a good many students who are not up to " high school 
standard." They fail in all tests and recite very poorly, never 
volunteering to speak. On the other hand, he is very much 
pleased with some of the students. He points to their high 
marks in his tests as evidence that the tests were fair. He 
thinks that the trouble is that the first-named group is not pre- 
pared for high school work. Some of them are not " high school 
material " at all. These students soon drop out. 



GROUP TEACHING 1 73 

The teacher takes the first opportunity to express his 
views to one of the elementary school principals. "What 
is the use," he asks, "of sending such stuff to high school? 
It simply wastes their time and ours. They can't do the 
work, and they simply clog the school machine until they 
see that they don't belong in high school. Then they quit 
and go to work. It seems to me that some of these people 
ought to stay in the elementary school for at least a year 
longer and some of them ought to be advised to go to work. 
Then they caji be earning a Hving instead of failing in the 
high school." 

"Apparently you and I have different views of the func- 
tion of the high school," the principal replies. "You seem 
to think that it is the duty of the school to maintain a 
certain standard of scholarship. The standard is the fixed 
element. Pupils who do not or cannot meet it are to be 
rejected or eliminated if they are so unwise as to enter. 
The school is for the benefit of a select group. 

I believe that the proper function of the high school, as 
of all other schools, is to do everything possible to help boys 
and girls of all sorts to make the most of themselves. It 
ought to accept the pupils as they are and help them to 
grow, instead of rejecting them because they do not conform 
to an arbitrary standard. The criterion for deciding whether 
a boy or girl should go to high school ought, I think, to be 
this : ' Can the high school do more for his development 
than the elementary school or industrial life?' I admit 
that, if your view of the matter should prevail, it would 
be a mistake for such pupils as we are discussing to go to 
high school, but I believe that the mistake would be yours. 

You recommend that some of these people stay a year 



174 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 

longer in the elementary school. We have tried that plan 
a great many times, but it has the very effect which you 
deplore. The pupils leave school. They are older than 
the other pupils and do not feel that they really belong 'with 
a lot of kids.' They come to dislike school and are glad to 
leave it. We try hard to persuade them to stay, but we are 
handicapped. I am confident that the high school with 
its varied equipment, its method of control adapted to 
older pupils, and its athletic activities, could, if it would, 
do far more for these people than we can possibly do.'* 

Our teacher objects that lowering the standard to fit 
poor students will spoil the school for the good ones. 
''How," he asks, "can they prepare for college? They 
will never cover the ground in four years, and they will get 
into lazy habits." 

"I don't want any lowering of standard," the principal 
declares. "I want standards adapted to the abilities of the 
students. If we are aiming to educate real boys and girls, 
we must abandon the idea of a single arbitrary standard, 
which can fit only a few of them. Here ! " (handing him a 
book) "read this and you will see what I mean." 

The teacher reads the book which records careful studies 
of individual differences among children and adults. It 
gives him a new idea. He has always been aware, of course, 
that people differ but he has never realized before how 
significant these differences are for interpreting the behavior 
of people. He has assumed that most people could, if 
they were sufficiently energetic and ambitious, accompKsh 
about as much as anyone else. The facts reported in the 
book show that in any group of persons there is wide varia- 
tion in any trait that may be considered and that, to a 



INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 1 75 

considerable extent, these differences are due to inheritance. 
He realizes for the first time that even the energy and ambi- 
tion needed for the highest success probably depend a 
good deal upon heredity. The idea of native capacity 
which sets bounds to an individual's growth is strongly 
impressed upon him. 

This idea keeps recurring in the teacher's consciousness 
during the next few weeks. As he works with his classes, 
he notices plenty of confirming evidence. He gives some 
tests which are difficult enough so that nobody can finish 
them in the time allowed and yet contain questions suffi- 
ciently easy to enable the poorest student to answer some 
of them. The results when tabulated prove to be consistent 
with measurements reported in the book. The majority 
of the class receive marks not very far from the average, 
and the farther a mark is above or below the average the 
fewer are the pupils receiving it. One pupil has almost 
perfect scores in several tests, although the teacher had not 
realized that he was much more capable than several 
others. He sees now that he had never before really tested 
this pupil's ability. The work has been too easy for him. 
He notices also that the students whose work had been 
unsatisfactory are by no means alike. A few of them have 
marks as good as the average, while one or two answered 
only a single question correctly. 

As he reflects on this matter of individual differences, 
he finds himself adopting the view of the elementary school 
principal in regard to the function of the high school. He 
begins to vary the lesson assignments so as to give the 
abler pupils stimulating tasks without discouraging the 
slower members of the class, and he sometimes works with 



176 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS ' ABILITY 

the poorest students in a separate group for a part of a 
period. When he notices that one of this group is absent, he 
fears that the fellow is becoming discouraged and promptly 
looks him up, although a few weeks before, he had been 
wishing that this pupil knew enough to quit. He has the 
satisfaction of having nearly every member of the class 
finish the term, with the assurance, also, of several that it 
was his help and encouragement which had prevented their 
dropping out. 

Problem 126. — Teachers are incHned to be skeptical in re- 
gard to rapid promotions. Some teachers rarely recommend a 
child for special advancement. They feel that the best pupils 
in the class are about what the normal child should be. They 
fear that children who advance rapidly will suffer later. Very 
few children are promoted during the term, yet tests show that 
some children are as capable as the average child two years in 
advance of them. At the end of the term, the superintendent 
calls a conference to consider the question of rapid promotions. 

The superintendent opens the conference by saying that, 
in his opinion, the schools are not providing adequately 
for the abler children. *'Slow and dull pupils," he says, 
"are held back and so take more than the normal amount 
of time to complete a given amount of work. If this is the 
proper thing to do, it would seem logical that the ablest 
pupils should take less than the normal period, in covering 
the same amount of work. I am aware that many teachers 
do not approve of rapid promotion and I have no intention 
of insisting arbitrarily upon it. The decision in such 
a matter ought not to rest upon mere opinion. I have 
called this conference for the purpose of studying the prob- 
lem with you. With our combined experience and the 
opportunity to make any studies that we please of the 



RAPID PROMOTIONS 1 77 

pupils in our schools, we ought to be able to find out the 
truth about this matter and come to an agreement as to 
what we ought to do." 

He then calls for reports from all the teachers in regard 
to the probable number of promotions and non-promotions. 
On the average, about ten per cent of each class are expected 
ito repeat the grade. One teacher expects three double 
promotions from her class and another five, but nobody else 
reports more than one case of double promotion and nearly- 
all the teachers have no such cases to report. In the whole 
school system, not one pupil has been promoted during the 
term. 

Commenting on the reports, the superintendent says: 
**It would appear, then, that about ten per cent of our 
pupils are so inferior in ability that they must repeat the 
term's work, but only a mere handful are of such superior 
merit as to warrant us in permitting them to advance more 
rapidly than the rest. For some reason, nearly all these 
superior pupils have been in Miss C.'s class or Miss F.'s 
class. Apparently these two teachers are always lucky, 
for every year they recommend several double promotions. 
Do you think that the actual abiKties of our pupils corre- 
spond to these promotion figures?" 

Most of the teachers think that the exceptional records 
of Miss C. and Miss F. are due to their own peculiarities 
of judgment rather than to the superior ability of their 
pupils. They agree also that there is a considerable varia- 
tion of ability among the pupils marked for regular pro- 
motion, but very few think that any of these have such 
exceptional ability as to warrant special promotion. 

"Can w^e get any accurate measures of ability," the 

E. T. PROB. — 12 



lyS VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 

superintendent asks, ''which will enable us to base our 
judgment upon facts, rather than opinions?" Someone 
suggests that averages of the monthly marks be used. 
Another thinks that the standard tests in arithmetic, read- 
ing, etc., would involve less of the personal equation. An- 
other proposes standard intelligence tests. The superin- 
tendent then appoints a committee to collect such figures 
and present the facts at the next meeting. 

The committee prepares charts based on the three kinds 
of data. There is a general similarity in the results in 
every grade, the only marked exceptions being in the tabu- 
lations of certain teachers' marks, where a few show a very 
large number of high marks and others a preponderance of 
low ones. The typical distribution of the measures of 
ability of the members of a class shows a synnnetrical 
arrangement about the middle mark. Half the class is 
included among the marks near the middle and, as the 
marks recede from the median, either above it or below it, 
the number of children who received these marks diminishes 
rapidly. The highest marks are usually about as far above 
the median as the poorest ones are below it. 

All of the teachers are surprised at the range of abilities 
in every grade. The similarity of the results in every tabu- 
lation convinces nearly everybody that superior children 
are to be found in every class, but when the question of 
rapid promotion is brought up, there are very few converts. 

''I think it is a great mistake to hurry these children 
along," says one. ''The first thing you know, they will be 
breaking down. I know a girl who had to stay out of school 
for two years and the doctor said it was the result of over- 
work. If these children can do the work so easily, let them 



RAPID PROMOTIONS 1 79 

have more time in the open air. Some of the parents 
have told me that they don't want their children pushed." 
Several heads nod vigorous approval, but the superintend- 
ent asks: "Are the superior pupils in greater need of 
open air than other pupils? Do pupils who receive rapid 
promotion break down more frequently than other pupils? " 
Several teachers say, "yes," and start to tell about cases 
of which they have heard, but the superintendent asks 
again : "How can we get the facts in regard to the questions 
which I just asked? Will a few isolated instances help 
us?" Teachers shake their heads at this last question and 
one suggests: "We can look up the school attendance. 
If the superior pupils have been as regular as the average, 
that would indicate that they are not inferior in health." 
Another says: "We might take all the pupils who have 
had rapid promotions and compare their attendance with 
the average both before and after the special advancement. 
If the special promotion has affected their health we might 
expect their attendance to fall off in comparison with the 
class average." A committee is appointed to look up these 
facts. 

Then someone says: "It is not so much a question of 
health as of maturity. Some of the ablest pupils are the 
youngest in the class. They may be able to get along all 
right for several years, but if you keep advancing them, 
when they get to the upper grades or the high school, they 
will not be mature enough to understand the work and 
presently they will have to repeat a grade." 

This argument appeals very strongly to many teachers. 
The superintendent starts to ask another question but a 
teacher exclaims: "We can test that in the same way. 



i8o 



VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 



Take all the cases of rapid promotion and see how many 
have had to repeat grades afterward. If their record, as 
compared with the rest of the class, is just as good after 
the special promotion as before, the objection falls to the 
ground." This study is assigned to another committee. 

At the next meeting, the first committee reports that it 
has studied the attendance records of two classes taken at 
random. It finds no evidence that pupils of superior ability 
are inferior in health. The attendance records of some fall 
below the average, but in both classes the average at- 
tendance of the superior group has been better than that 
of the whole class. The committee reports also on forty- 
six cases of rapid promotion. In individual instances, 
attendance after the special advancement was poorer in 
comparison with the class average than before, but taking 
the group as a whole, the later attendance, in comparison 
with the class record, was almost exactly the same as before 
the promotion. 

The committee appointed to investigate the effect of 
immaturity on the subsequent school career of pupils 
receiving rapid promotion reports a similar result. The 
committee looked up all the cases which it could find in 
the records. Several had already graduated from high 
school and some had received more than one special pro- 
motion. In a few cases, pupils had failed of promotion 
after having received a double promotion, but all but one 
of these were pupils who were older than the average for 
their grades and therefore do not affect the question of 
immaturity. In general, pupils who have received rapid 
advancement have continued to stand well in their classes. 

A teacher says: ^'Admitting that, on the average, 



RAPID PROMOTIONS iSl 

superior pupils may be advanced rapidly without injury, 
what about the individual children who are not strong or 
who are very much younger than their classmates?" It 
is agreed, after brief discussion, that such pupils should 
advance at the normal rate, staying out of school part of 
the time, or, if it is merely a question of age, taking addi- 
tional reading, or nature study, or shop work. 

"Are there any remaining doubts about the wisdom of 
rapid promotion for superior pupils?" asks the superin- 
tendent. There is no reply, but evidently some "are of 
the same opinion still." "We have made an earnest 
effort," he continues, "to find out what we ought to do. 
All the facts point in one direction. I feel, therefore, that 
we ought to give the plan a thorough trial. Where our 
standard tests show that a pupil has exceptional ability 
we ought to give him every possible opportunity to advance 
unless there is some good reason for holding him back. But 
we ought not to consider the question settled, for we have 
studied only a small number of cases. We ought to keep 
a record of results, and be prepared to modify our practice 
if further experience shows that we are wrong." 

Principles regarding Variations in Ability of Pupils 

1. Although children of a certain grade have certain common 
characteristics which should be understood by the teacher, 
they present so many differences that it is most important to 
think of them and deal with them as individuals. 

2. No two children in the class have the same inherited traits, 
physical and mental. They have been influenced by very 
different factors of environment : home, school, neighborhood, 
associates, etc. Ideas, habits, ambitions, temperaments are 
unlike. 

3. A teacher should take advantage of available knowledge in 



l82 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 

regard to the previous experience of his pupils. The knowledge 
of their former teachers should be sought. Acquaintance with 
the home environment is essential to intelligent action by the 
teacher. 

4. A pupil's capacities, rather than a general ideal of what 
children ought to be, should guide the teacher in his work and 
in interpreting results. 

5. A much greater amount of differentiation in subject matter 
and method is possible than is usually employed. Work of a 
formal nature can be presented in such a way that the pupil 
can make its accomplishment an individual problem. 

' 6. It is at least as important that gifted pupils make the most 
*^ of their talents as that handicapped pupils be given work that 
/ suits their abilities. 

i 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 127. — A primary teacher puts before her class the 
project of making Christmas boxes. Some of the children have 
quite definite ideas of what then* boxes should be like. A few 
would, if permitted, go ahead with the work without help. 
Many wait to be told what to do, and some of these make blun- 
ders unless they are shown every step and watched carefully. 
If allowed to work freely, a few do the work very rapidly and 
well, others go ahead " slap-dash " and spoil their material. If 
the whole class is required to await directions and inspection* of 
work, interest flags, and accomplishment is small. Furthermore 
the teacher realizes that the children are getting no training in 
thinking and seK-directed execution. 

Problem 128. — The children in a certain class show wide 
variation in abihty in arithmetic and spelling. The teacher 
realizes that many are not making as good progress as they 
might if their individual needs could be attended to. With 
thirty-five in the class, she does not see how she can do more 
than to help a few especially dull ones and those who lose time 
because of sickness. 

Problem 129. — In a high school class in science, there are 
eleven boys and sixteen girls. Two of the boys and haK of the 
girls are of a mentally docile t3^e who try hard to master any 



ABILITY 183 

assignment which is given. They do not really grasp the signifi- 
cance of much that is studied and show little interest or ability 
in applying their knowledge independently. Four of the boys 
and one girl are keenly interested in scientific things, have read 
a great deal of popular science and experimented with home- 
made apparatus. They find the ordinary textbook work rather 
dull, but have more knowledge of applications, in a superficial 
way, than the teacher. The rest of the boys vary in ability from 
good to poor. They have no special interest in science but most 
of them have no great difficulty in understanding it. The rest 
of the girls vary in general ability from good to poor. They 
have not the slightest interest iri science and find it " all Greek." 
Not being of the docile type, they do not make any strenuous 
effort. 

Problem 130. — A teacher is called upon to report which of 
her pupils should be promoted. She realizes that there are 
great variations in ability among the members of the class, and 
a corresponding variation in their knowledge of the subject 
matter of the course for the grade. Few have really mastered 
it, although most of the class were able to write passable tests 
when the work was freshly in mind. She feels the need of some 
principle upon which to base her decision. 

Problem 131. — All children do practically the same work in 
music and drawing in school. Unless a parent can afford to 
provide private lessons, a pupil with special ability has no chance 
to develop it. 

Problem 132. — The superintendent suggests that the needs of 
pupils of different abilities and interests can probably be provided 
for to some extent, even in high school classes, by making dif- 
ferent lesson assignments for different groups and sometimes 
using a part of a period for teaching a part of the class while the 
rest are working by themselves. Most of the teachers of the 
upper grades and the high school regard this as quite imprac- 
ticable and ignore the suggestion. One teacher decides to give 
it a thorough trial and sets to work to think out a method of 
using it and testing the results. 

Problem 133. — At the opening of the school year, a principal 
suggests that teachers look up the previous records of their 



l84 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 

pupils and consult their former teachers, in order to get all the 
available information about them. One teacher remarks to 
another : "I make it a point not to listen to anything about a 
new class. I don't want to get any prejudices. I prefer to get 
acquainted with the children myself." 

Problem 134. — A musician who has recently moved to town 
brings his thirteen-year-old boy to school. The father says that 
the boy is talented and is making splendid progress with the 
violin. He practices five hours a day. The father wants him 
to come to school only two or three hours a day and take only 
English and history. The principal is willing to make this 
arrangement, if the eighth-grade teacher consents. She is 
incUned to object, but is asked to think it over. 

Problem 135. — In a certain school district, about twenty-five 
per cent of the pupils are negroes. Most of the teachers regard 
them as an inferior, repulsive race. They think of them as a homo- 
geneous group, ascribing to all the uncleanliness, viciousness, and 
stupidity which they observe in individual cases. They think of 
white children, in comparison with the negroes, as a markedly 
superior group. The tendency is to think: of a dainty little 
white girl from a home of refinement and a dirty, uncouth 
negro boy, who has been brought up amid squalor and degrading 
influences, as t)^es of the two races. One of the teachers feels 
that the negroes are not given a fair chance. There are many 
heated arguments which have no effect upon the opinions of 
the disputants. The teacher wonders what she can do to get 
a square deal for the negroes. 

Problem 136. — A teacher has two annoying pupils in her class. 
A girl appears to be inattentive and stupid during recitations. 
She frequently shows that she knows little or nothing about a 
subject that the class has just been discussing. She apparently 
pays Httle attention to the teacher's directions. The teacher 
knows that she is capable of doing better work, because she 
reads well, writes excellent compositions, and does well on exam- 
inations which are based on matter which she has studied in 
textbooks. A boy is often listless, sometimes even falls asleep 
in the classroom. 



VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 185 

REFERENCES 

Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapters X, XV. 
Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, Briefer Course, Part III. 
Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter X. 
Sechrist, F. K., Education and the General Welfare, Chapters X, XII. 
Terman, L, M., The Intelligence of School Children. 
Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, Chapters I, II, V. 
Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher, Chapters 
IV, VIII, IX. 



CHAPTER IX 
PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

Distinguishing the Important from the Non-Essen- 
tial; EFnciENCY and System; the Value of 
Planning 

Problem 137. — A teacher plans her recitations, but seldom 
succeeds in accompUshing the work laid out; frequently con- 
tinues the assignment for a second, sometimes for a third day ; 
usually has to skim over the last part of the work of the term, 
omitting some things which would be valuable if there were 
time ; declines to take up some questions proposed by pupils, 
because there is not time for them. 

The teacher becomes more and more dissatisfied with her 
work and even thinks of giving up teaching. Other teachers 
tell her that she is setting too high a standard. One says : 
^'I simply cover the course of study and flunk pupils who 
don't do reasonably well. There's no use in breaking your 
heart trying to make them all come up to your ideal." 
This affords no comfort to our teacher. She cannot bring 
herself to pass on to a new lesson when the class- has not 
mastered the previous work. 

One day she reads an account of a successful business 
man who has died recently. The article lays stress on the 
magnitude of his accomplishments and reports a conversa- 
tion in which he attributed his success to a habit of defining 
his purposes and putting complete faith in his ability to 
accomplish them. ''I don't waste time," he is reported to 
have said, "by making a move until I know just where I 

i86 



THE IMPORTANT AND THE NON-ESSENTIAL 187 

am going. When I know just what I want, I look for the 
essential elements of the problem and bring my whole effort 
to bear in mastering them. I try to make every minute 
count in accompHshing my purpose." This fires the 
teacher's ambition. 

She begins by asking herself the question, "Do I know 
just what I am trying to do?" and concludes that she has 
been attempting to have all of her pupils master the sub- 
ject matter of the textbooks so that they will know it ac- 
curately. ''There may be something wrong in my method 
of teaching," she thinks, "or I may be trying to do the 
wrong thing. I have certainly tried my best to cover the 
course of study thoroughly and I have never succeeded. 
I have only a certain amount of time. I can't change 
that. Either the task is impossible in the time allowed, 
or I have been wasting time on non-essentials. What are 
the essentials, then?" 

She sees that she has been making no distinction between 
the various parts of the course, but has been trying to cover 
it all thoroughly. She tries to select the parts which might 
be omitted with least loss to the pupils, and has difficulty in 
deciding what to leave out. It is hard to admit that any 
item which she knows herself is not important for the pupils. 
Presently she sees that the very attempt to differentiate 
between the important and the non-essential implies a 
change of aim. The moment she abandons the idea of 
teaching everything in the books, she must have some basis 
of selection. 

The trouble is that she has no clear idea as to what that 
basis should be. This leads her to consider what the 
course of study is for. Her first thought is based on the 



1 88 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

idea which has really actuated her up to this time, although 
she has never formulated it definitely, namely, that it is a 
statement of the knowledge which everyone should possess, 
but this immediately brings her back to the starting point. 
What knowledge should everyone possess? As a matter 
of fact, there is great variation in the knowledge which 
different people have. Her own experience convinces her 
that it is impossible to give all the pupils in a class the same 
knowledge in a given time, unless the amount is set far 
below the capacity of many of the members. It occurs 
to her also that mere knowledge is not the most valuable 
possession. Some people who are walking encyclopedias 
are not at all efficient. 

After continued reflection, and some reading on educa- 
tional aims, she comes to the conclusion that it is impossible 
to have all the pupils in a class accomplish exactly the same 
things in a given time and that the teacher's aim should 
be to enable each one to get as much development as he is 
capable of getting during the term. This leads her to mod- 
ify the assignments for study. She begins to hold some 
pupils responsible for a more comprehensive grasp of a 
subject than others. She tries to see that the poorest 
students understand ideas and processes which they must 
use in later work, but she does not expect them to do as 
much reading or to work out as many examples as the abler 
pupils can do. She finds that this recognition of individual 
capacity enables her to make more rapid progress and 
presently discovers that a fair proportion of the class will 
have done considerably more, by the end of the term, than 
the course of study calls for. 

Having grasped the idea that the mastery of subject 



THE IMPORTANT AND THE NON-ESSENTIAL 189 

matter is not to be regarded as an end in itself but as a 
means of individual development, the teacher gradually 
formulates more definitely her ideas in regard to the nature 
of such development. She begins to work to arouse in- 
terests which will lead pupils to read and think more on 
their own initiative. She tries to develop self-reliance and 
comes to believe that it is more important that the pupils 
shall have a desire to find the answers to questions and 
ability to use books efficiently in getting needed information 
than that they shall know all the facts in the textbook. 
She no longer feels conscience smitten if a few pages 
of a text are not discussed in class, and she feels free to 
depart at times from the order in which topics are treated 
by the author. She selects for special study and discussion 
matters which she thinks will be particularly stimulating 
and will put fruitful ideas in the pupils' minds. 

At the end of the term the teacher formulates her solution 
of the problem of covering the course of study in the time 
allotted, thus: 

1. The purpose is not to cover the subject matter of the 
course of study but to make use of this in furthering the de- 
velopment of the individual pupils of the class according to 
their capacities. 

2. The most important elements of such development are 
stimulating interests, ambitions, ideas which are likely to be 
used frequently, self-reliance, ability to use books, maps, and 
other material to get needed information, ability to help other 
members of the class and to get help from them. 

3. The subject matter for class discussion should be that 
which involves most difficulty, or is needed for understanding 
work which is to come later, or which will start new interests 
and valuable ideas. Other material which is needed for con- 
necting the topics taken up in class can be gone over rapidly, 
either by the teacher or by individual reading by the pupils. 



I go PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

4. It is wrong to attempt to have all pupils do exactly the 
same work. The class should be taught in groups a part of the 
time. Pupils can work individually on certain kinds of work, 
with occasional help from the teacher. Some pupils should have 
harder assignments for study than others. 

5. Every pupil should be encouraged to accomplish as much 
as he can in a given time. 

Problem 138. — A pupil of good ability is sick for three months 
of the term. He is then given private lessons and has no diffi- 
culty in completing the work and rejoining his class at the be- 
ginning of the new term. This suggests to the teacher that 
there must be a great deal of time lost by children in ordinary 
school work. She wonders whether it would be possible to 
enable pupils to accomplish more in a given time. 

With this idea in mind, the teacher observes her pupils 
closely and studies her own habitual procedure to see if she 
can discover opportunities for saving time. It has always 
been her practice to have a great deal of oral reading. In 
history, geography, hygiene, etc., her usual plan has been 
to take up a new lesson by having pupils read short passages 
in turn. The first day of her study of the time problem, she 
notices that as individual pupils read — some of them read- 
ing so poorly as to necessitate frequent correction or repeti- 
tion — many of the other pupils, who have their books 
before them and are supposed to be following the text, seem 
to be bored. She sees that they are making practically 
no eJEfort and realizes, as she observes them, that they have 
really no incentive for effort. She notices one pupil turn- 
ing a page when there is no occasion for him to do so, and, 
moving quietly behind him, discovers that he is reading 
two or three pages in advance of the oral reader. She 
starts to rebuke him for not keeping the place, but thinks 
better of it and simply watches him from time to time 



THE IMPORTANT AND THE NON-ESSENTIAL 191 

during the rest of the lesson. When she directs the class 
to put away books, this pupil has read five or six times as 
much as the rest of the pupils. She immediately questions 
him on the subject matter which has been read aloud and 
is surprised to find that he knows the essential facts. After 
school, she asks him to tell her the substance of what he 
read in advance of the class, and is convinced that he has 
gained a better idea of it than the average pupil has obtained 
of what he has listlessly followed as other pupils read aloud. 
The next day she has the whole class read silently some new 
material, telling them to read until she stops them but to 
make sure that they understand what they read, and to 
ask questions when they meet difficulties which they cannot 
conquer themselves. There is much variation in the 
amount read, but everyone has done much more than the 
usual lesson assignment. To her amazement, she discovers, 
on questioning the pupils, that as a rule those who have read 
most have the best understanding of what they have read. 
She concludes that her old practice of having forty pupils 
sit with open books, following the oral reading of a few 
individuals, is a terrible waste of time. 

On substituting silent reading for most of the oral work, 
she is troubled for a time by the impossibility of keeping 
the class together. If she gives a fixed assignment some of 
the pupils finish it in six or seven minutes while others have 
not mastered it in twenty. She meets this situation partly 
by getting additional reading material for the fast readers 
and partly by working with the class in groups. 

One day, a parent complains that the assignment for 
home study was unreasonable. Her daughter spent an 
hour and a half on the arithmetic lesson and was sent to 



192 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

bed protesting, before she had finished all the examples. 
The teacher thinks that the assignment was a fair one and 
asks all the pupils to report on the time spent on the lesson. 
One or two had spent nearly as long as the girl above 
mentioned, most of the class had completed the work in 
25 to 40 minutes, and a few — most of whom had perfect 
papers — had spent only fifteen minutes. 

''More waste time there," thinks the teacher. "Some 
of these children could easily do twice the work which I 
am giving them." She varies the assignments with the aim 
of having pupils work more nearly in accordance with their 
abilities. Even grouping the class does not fully meet 
the situation, for there are differences among the children 
of any group which she forms. In the effort to keep two 
of the pupils busy, she tells them one day, that they need 
not work with the rest of the group but may take their 
books and go ahead as fast as they can. She has no further 
trouble with these pupils. They occasionally ask for help, 
but at the end of the term they have completed the whole 
of the next term's work in several subjects and a double 
promotion is the obvious result. 

The teacher finds various other leaks in her store of 
minutes. It occurs to her that it may not be profitable to 
have the whole class study the same spelling lesson and 
listen while the words are spelled over and over. For a 
day or two, she dictates the new lesson without giving any 
opportunity for study and finds that many of the class 
already know the words. Thereafter, she makes spelling 
an individual problem. The pupils are told what words 
they are expected to master during the term and are offered 
tests, on any part of the work, whenever they are ready 



THE IMPORTANT AND THE NON-ESSENTIAL 193 

for them. They keep notebooks of their individual diffi- 
culties and put their chief effort upon these. 

Before long the teacher's enthusiasm for saving time com- 
municates itself to the pupils and many of them acquire a 
good deal of ability to work on their own problems, espe- 
cially on the formal parts of arithmetic, spelling, language, 
and penmanship. 

The necessity of teaching the pupils in groups and giving 
more attention to individuals, which becomes apparent 
as soon as the teacher undertakes seriously to have every- 
body work up to his capacity, makes economy of the 
teacher's time a pressing problem. More and more she 
turns over to pupils duties which she had been performing 
herself. All such matters as the care and distribution of 
material, keeping blackboards in order, caring for plants, 
writing lessons on the blackboard, adjusting shades, regu- 
lating the ventilating damper, are gradually assumed by the 
pupils in order to give the teacher time for work which she 
alone can do. Even the labor of correcting exercises is 
reduced to a considerable extent, as pupils learn to work on 
their own problems and to make use of standards and keys 
in checking their results, and realize that only by being 
scrupulous in this checking can they be sure of meeting 
the tests which the teacher uses regularly to determine their 
progress. 

Problem 139. — A teacher becomes discouraged with the 
amount of work which she has to do : marking papers, planning 
lessons, reports, and conferences. She has to work late to make 
preparation for the next day and is sometimes so tired that she 
has to omit the preparation. This tends to become increasingly 
frequent. She cannot find time for professional reading or 
recreation. 

E. T. PROS. — 13 



194 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

The teacher notices an advertisement of a book on per- 
sonal efficiency and sends for it. The author's experience 
has evidently been in the commercial field and she finds 
no references to her own specific problems, but she notes 
several principles which are suggestive and she proceeds 
to apply them to her own case. 

1. To be efficient one must be systematic. He must lay out 
his job in accordance with his time, and have a regular time for 
performing regular duties, and stick to his program. If he simply 
does the first thing which confronts him, he is likely to be always 
behindhand, and important duties will be neglected. 

2. To be efficient one must take time for regular exercise, 
for recreation, and for cultural development. He must not 
allow his work to make a slave of him. Except in rare cases 
of emergency, he should not allow his work to encroach upon 
his time for the other important parts of an all-around life. 

3. One should cultivate the habit of working at top speed 
while he works, and dropping work completely at other times. 
He should study to discover ways of economizing time. 

4. One should reduce all regular duties to a habit. It is 
wasteful in the extreme to make a new problem of matters which 
arise every day. Find the best way of doing a thing and do it 
regularly until it becomes automatic. 

The teacher begins by trying to lay out a time program. 
She makes a list of the principal features of her life as 
she thinks it ought to be: school duties during school 
hours, school duties out of school hours, professional study, 
cultural activities, recreation, physical exercise, religious 
life, social and community activities. She then makes out 
a tentative schedule, revising it frequently as she works, 
until she has evolved the following : 



EFFICIENCY AND SYSTEM 



195 



Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday 


Sunday 


Bath, five-minute exercise, dress 


7 








8 Breakfast and morning paper 


8 
Bath, exer- 
cise, dress 




Misc. 
uncom- 
pleted 
sch.work 
sewing, 
shopping 




Breakfast 


9 
10 SCHOOL 


9 
Mending 
etc. 

10 


II 

T2 


II 
Church 

12 








LUNCHEON 


I 




Recrea- 
tion or 
cultural 
enjoy- 
ment, 
excursion, 
theater, 
concert, 
etc. 


Dinner 


3 SCHOOL 


Walk 3 

or 4 

Social 
call 

5 


4 

Tearhers' 
meeting 


Exercise and recreation 


5 
Exercise 


School work 


Dress for dinner 


6 


7 Dinner and sociability 


Supper 7 


9 


8 


9 School 
work 


Profes- 
sional 
reading 


School 
work 


Liter- 
ary 
Club 


School 
work 


Cultural 9 
reading 


Reading for recreation 

TT. 


Read- 
ing 


10 

II 



196 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

The teacher finds a good deal of difficulty in adapting 
her habits to her program. She has regarded seven o'clock 
as her time for rising, but, more frequently than not, she 
has worked until midnight or later and has been so tired in 
the morning that it has usually been 7.15 to 7.30 when she 
finally mustered courage to get out of bed. The first day 
after she makes her program, she follows it accurately 
until night. Then marking papers and planning lessons 
for the next two days occupy her until eleven, and she had 
counted on reading a chapter or two after finishing her work. 
She decides that she will sleep better if she reads a few 
minutes and the book is so interesting that she is not in 
bed until 12.30. The result is that she does not wake until 
7.30 and has to rush to get to school on time. Everything 
goes wrong that day. She thinks the program scheme is 
impractical anyway. 

The next morning some of the statements in the book on 
efficiency come to mind. She recognizes the author's 
description of the average person, who, he says, is only 
fifty per cent efficient, as a fair statement of her own be- 
havior of the past twenty-four hours. She grits her teeth 
and jumps out of bed with the exclamation: *'I'll make 
myself follow that program until I've given it a fair trial." 
She sticks to it rehgiously for two weeks and finds that 
it gradually becomes easier. Some of the daily duties are 
really becoming habits, and she is coming to enjoy the 
regular exercise and feel better for it. 

Her greatest difficulty is to keep her school work within 
the time limits. She has to spend a good part of Sunday 
on it, to catch up. As she is pondering this difficulty on the 
second Sunday evening, she takes up the efficiency book 



EFFICIENCY AND SYSTEM I97 

again and notices the advice about working at top speed 
and studying to discover ways of economizing time. She 
sets to work to fit her school duties into the time assigned. 
"I have allowed as much as I can spend without getting 
narrow or else getting sick. That means that I must keep 
to the time limit, and do it without doing any poorer work 
with the children." 

The plan of working hard during her work periods helps 
a good deal. She succeeds in eliminating day dreaming and 
listless paper marking, although the effort to concentrate 
attention and keep moving rapidly tires her until she be- 
comes accustomed to it. Presently she becomes interested 
in estimating the time needed to do a given piece of work 
and comparing the actual time spent with the estimate. 
After a few weeks, she finds herself working at a higher 
level of speed and is actually less tired than when she used 
to plod wearily through a set of papers. 

The effort to economize time leads her to discover various 
ways of reducing the amount of out-of-school work without 
any apparent loss to the pupils. She finds that there are 
other ways of helping children than having them write 
endless papers to be marked by the teacher. In some cases 
the work can be taken up orally, and some children 
can check up their own work. She finds, too, that the 
form of the papers affects the time of marking to a surpris- 
ing extent, and she works out schemes of testing pupils' 
mastery of certain subjects through tests in which the an- 
swers are given in such brief form that they can be checked 
very rapidly. 

During the first two weeks, the teacher holds so strictly 
to her program, that her friends think she is getting to be a 



198 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

crank. She refuses a dinner invitation and stays away from 
an entertainment at the church. She has done this delib- 
erately, however, in order to test the plan and get some 
habits well established. As soon as the plan is running 
smoothly, she finds it possible to use it with some flexibility. 
She does not allow herself to take every evening off, but 
when some special event occurs, she anticipates it by doing 
some extra work on Saturday or makes up the lost time by 
cutting a little from her time for reading or recreation. 

After she has had her plan in operation for about two 
months, she is asked to take part in a play to be given by 
the Literary Club. Her first impulse is to refuse, because 
it will be necessary to give two evenings a week to rehearsal 
and, during the week of the performance, every evening will 
be required. She knows that she would get a great deal of 
enjoyment, and would come to know the other participants 
intimately, and she realizes that she ought to broaden her 
social experience. After debating the question carefully, 
she decides to accept and proceeds to adjust her program 
to the new undertaking. By cutting out a part of her 
usual recreation for two weeks before the rehearsals begin, 
she gets ahead of her schedule for professional reading. 
She decides that while working on the play, she will omit 
attendance at the regular club meetings and will cancel her 
regular evening of professional reading, making up some of 
this on Saturday morning or Sunday. During the week 
of the performance, she decides that she will have to omit 
her exercise in the afternoon, on some days at least. By 
anticipating a part of her school work, on the previous 
Saturday, she can meet this special emergency without 
encroaching upon her obligations to the childrep. 



EFFICIENCY AND SYSTEM 1 99 

The outcome of this deliberate attack upon her own prob- 
lem is that the teacher gains better health, does better work, 
and takes real enjoyment in her work. The job is no 
longer too big for her. 

During the progress of the experiment, she has said noth- 
ing to her friends about her plan, because she has not 
been sufficiently confident of success to invite the pleasan- 
tries which would be showered upon her if the scheme should 
be a "fizzle." The undertaking means so much to her that 
she feels that she could not bear the "I told you so's" of 
the worldly-wise. She can hear a particularly incorrigible 
joker referring constantly to "our efiiciency expert." One 
evening after she has got well out of the woods, one of a 
group who are chatting after dinner remarks on the change 
in our teacher. "You are a diJBferent person," says the 
former. "I never saw you looking so well. What is it, 
Christian Science or deep breathing?" "Guess again," 
says our teacher. "It's true that I have been converted, 
but the cult is one that you probably never heard of. I 
belong to the Society of the Systematic. Wait! I'll 
show you my bible"; and she gets her book on efficiency. 
Then she tells them the whole story. 

The time schedule arouges plenty of mirth as well as 
some serious questions. "Heavens!" says one, "thirty 
minutes from bed to breakfast ! and you haven't bobbed 
your hair either ! " "Work every evening ! " says another. 
"How about *all work and no play ' ? " "If that's a teacher's 
life," exclaims a third, "I'd rather sell ribbon!" and, 
turning to a girl who wears a solitaire diamond, "Where 
would you put Bob in that schedule?" "I never could 
live by rule," says another, "I should feel like a jail bird. 



200 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

Half the fun in life would be gone if I had to do everything 
by the clock. I would rather go on a bat once in a while 
even if I had to sit up all night to catch up with my work 
afterward." 

Our teacher laughs with the rest. She is sure of her 
ground, as far as her own problem is concerned, so the 
criticisms do not trouble her. ''You must bear in mind," 
she says, ''that this is w^' schedule. It is not intended for 
anyone else. It works well for me. I am happier than I 
have ever been before, since I began to teach, and I know 
that I am doing better work. I feel better, and although 
I am not working so many hours as I used to do, I am ac- 
complishing a great deal more. 

One of you suggested that I was making my life ' all work 
and no play,' but if you count up the time assigned to school 
duties, you will see that I spend, on an average, only about 
eight and a half hours a day, and that Saturday is free for 
other things. Furthermore, I have not assigned any def- 
inite school work for vacations. I expect to do some 
professional reading during the summer and occasionally I 
shall go to summer school, but I mean to spend some of my 
vacations in travel and other kinds of recreation. I doubt 
whether we can ever make teaching a true profession if we 
reduce the time devoted to the job and to professional 
growth much below my allowance. I notice that young 
men who are going ahead in other professions seem to work 
evenings a good deal and take very much shorter vacations 
than we do." 

"But," objects one of the others, "there isn't the nervous 
strain in the other professions that there is in teaching." 
"Perhaps that is true/' our teacher answers, "I used to find 



EFFICIENCY AND SYSTEM 201 

myself worn out at the end of the week, and had to be 
treated as a semi-invalid most of the summer, but I find 
that since I have been working systematically, I feel per- 
fectly well. I think that the regular Hfe, regular sleep, 
and regular exercise are doing very much more for me than 
a few hours a week taken from work and devoted to more 
or less aimless indulgence. Then the sense of mastery 
over my work has a good effect on my health, I think. 
I used to be constantly worried and discouraged because 
I could never seem to catch up. When I went to bed, my 
conscience was not at rest because there was so much work 
left undone. Now I finish my work and forget it completely 
when I turn to other things. I enjoy my recreation so 
much that I believe I get more out of it than if I spent 
twice as much time in relaxation. 

But, as I say, this schedule may not fit anyone else. 
Anyone who thinks that he can do better without following 
a systematic plan has no need of such a scheme as this. 
Anyone who feels the need of system would probably need 
to make his own schedule. Individuals differ so much that 
no fixed plan could possibly fit everybody. For my own 
part, I feel that spending more than a half hour in getting 
ready for breakfast is a waste of time, and I imagine that 
those who insist that they must have a full hour could 
really learn to present themselves in just as attractive form 
in less time, if they really desired to save minutes for some- 
thing more important. However, if they really need an 
extra half hour, they would have to modify the schedule 
accordingly, — move the times for retiring and rising for- 
ward, for example. 

Anyone who feels the need of more free evenings might 



202 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

manage by spending a part of Saturday on school work and 
doing all his professional study during the summer." 

"What about Elsie and Bob?" asks one of the scoffers. 
"They probably feel capable of managing their partnership 
without any help from me," is the retort, "but before I 
let any young man put a ring on my finger, he has got to 
agree to spend some of his evenings in preparing himself 
to earn a good income. I have a notion that one could learn 
to exchange all the endearments, which are really essential 
to a fair state of bliss, without hanging on the gate until mid- 
night every day in the week. If not, teaching ought not 
to be allowed to interfere. Get out the wedding invitations 
at once ! " 

Problem 140. — A teacher spends most of the time, during 
the first few days of a school year, in registering pupils, assigning 
seats, obtaining and distributing textbooks and supplies, giving 
directions in regard to school procedure, dealing with delayed 
questions of promotion, etc. Children have very little to occupy 
their time. She appeals to them frequently to be quiet, as the 
disturbance interferes with her work. When she is ready to 
begin regular teaching, the class has developed some bad habits 
which are overcome with diffiiculty. A number of pupils come 
to school a week late. Parents explain that it seemed un- 
necessary to return from the country during the first week, be- 
cause the children said that they would not lose anything. 

At a teachers' meeting a week after the opening of school, 
a discussion arises in which all the factors mentioned in the 
problem are brought out. Many of the teachers are fully 
aware that the difficulties are due to the fact that the chil- 
dren come to school before teachers are ready for them. 
"If I could only be free," says one, "to do the preliminary 
work without having forty squirming children to distract 



THE VALUE OF PLANNING 203 

me, it would be a blessed relief ! I feel as if all the good 
of my vacation had gone in a week." 

Several suggestions are offered. One teacher proposes 
that, as soon as pupils are registered, they be dismissed 
for a few days. Another suggests that school be dismissed 
at noon during the first week, and one thinks that school 
ought to begin a week later. "The children would lose 
nothing," she says. 

The principal then asks : "What is our chief problem — 
to reheve ourselves of annoyance, or to make the first week 
of school profitable for the children?" All agree that the 
latter is the more important consideration. "How can we 
make it more profitable ? Let us consider the suggestions 
that have been made. First, suppose that we dismiss the 
pupils after registration. What would they gain? " Some- 
one declares that they would not get into bad habits through 
idleness in school. They would realize that when school is 
in session it means real work. The objection is made that 
more pupils would avoid returning for registration and the 
irregularity of the opening days would merely be extended. 
Others make the point that when school has once begun, 
to have all the children turned out with no regular occupa- 
tions would be demoralizing. "Many of the children are 
bored with vacation by this time," says one, "and they 
want to get back to school." There are similar objections 
to the other proposals. 

The principal points out that school began on September 
8 th and that the school year is only 38 weeks in length. 
"It seems to me," he says, "that we ought not to reduce 
the number of actual school days, but to find a way of 
making every day valuable. Let us study the problem 



204 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OP TIME 

from that point of view. What changes are needed to 
make the opening days as profitable for the pupils as the 
later ones?" Answers come thick and fast. "They 
should have seats assigned, and have textbooks and supplies 
from the beginning." "The teacher should be free to 
give her whole attention to teaching, instead of making 
reports and stopping every few minutes to talk with a 
messenger from the ofhce." "All pupils ought to be on 
hand when school opens, instead of straggling in all the way 
from a day to a week late." "Pupils who have been absent 
from examinations at the end of the previous term or who 
have been making up work during the summer should have 
been tested and assigned definitely to a grade when school 
opens." 

Then discussion centers upon ways and means of accom- 
plishing the desired changes. The argument points to the 
conclusion that, in order to have the regular work begin 
as soon as school opens, it would be necessary that teachers 
should assemble at least one day earlier than usual. Most 
of the teachers find it very difficult to admit this conclusion. 
They agree with the argument until the final step is reached 
but the idea of returning from vacation earlier than usual 
conflicts with a very deep-seated conviction. They immedi- 
ately turn the debate in the opposite direction, starting with 
the usual date for the return of teachers as the bed-rock of 
their faith, and attempting to modify the proposals which 
had at first been acceptable. One suggests that they get 
along the first day without textbooks and supplies and 
attend to this matter after school. Another reverts to the 
proposal to close school in the afternoon for a day or two. 
Several argue that the loss of time during the opening days 



THE VALUE OF PLANNING 205 

has been much exaggerated. The discussion is back at 
the starting point, but the center of attention has shifted 
from the difficulties of the first days of school to the danger 
of losing a day or two of vacation. 

The principal realizes that there is no chance of obtain- 
ing a calm, well-considered decision. So he says : ''We do 
not need to decide the question now. I am not disposed 
to insist upon a change from the usual plan until there is 
a general agreement in favor of it. We all want to do what- 
ever we can to improve the school and I have no doubt that 
we shall in time find the right solution. Next spring, be- 
fore school closes we can decide what to do." 

When the question is reopened in June, the attitude is 
practically the same as before. So the principal cuts short 
the discussion and says: "I think that some experimental 
evidence would help us. I should be glad to cooperate 
with any of you who would like to try the plan of making 
as much preparation as possible before the opening of 
school." 

Three teachers who volunteer to take part in the experi- 
ment agree to return two days before school opens and to 
do some thinking on the matter during the sunmier. One 
of these teachers, Miss A., spends a couple of days shortly 
before her return in planning lessons for the first week. 
She sends for copies of two new textbooks which are to be 
introduced and makes herself thoroughly famihar with 
them. She collects illustrative material, makes notes of 
some of her own vacation experiences, which will interest 
the children, and plans lessons in which they can tell about 
their own doings during the summer. She visualizes the 
class as it will assemble on the opening day, and tries to 



206 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

devise plans which will enable every child to be profitably 
employed from the moment when he arrives at school. 
She writes to two of her new pupils asking them if they 
would like to help her in making preparations. She noti- 
fies children whose promotion is doubtful when to report 
for examination, and asks the principal to insert notices 
in the newspapers requesting pupils who are to attend the 
school for the first time to report on a certain day for 
registration and assignment to grade. 

The three teachers meet the principal at the appointed 
time and discuss details of organization. The teachers 
receive their keys and their allowances of books and suppHes. 
Miss A. promptly sets to work the pupils who have examina- 
tions to take and assists in the registration and assignment 
of new pupils. With the assistance of the children who have 
come to help, she labels and numbers the new books, arranges 
equipment, mounts pictures on the bulletin board, and 
transfers the classroom library from the closet to shelves 
accessible to the children. She arranges to have her win- 
dow-boxes filled with plants, and has the janitor replace 
some broken inkwells and repair a window shade which 
had been overlooked. A set of books is placed on each 
desk, pencils are sharpened, and other supplies are made 
ready for rapid distribution. A seating plan is made and a 
card bearing the pupil's name and the nimiber of his coat- 
hook is placed on each desk. A form for registration and 
textbook record and a program of recitations are written 
on the blackboard, also the following notice : 

"First find your desk and coat-hook. Afterward, until the 
bell rings, you may talk quietly with one another or look over 
your new books." 



THE VALUE OF PLANNING 207 

On the opening day, the teacher stands at the door of the 
classroom and has a pleasant word for each arrival as she 
shakes hands. She has made herself familiar with the 
names and has acquired a good deal of information about 
individuals from their previous teacher, so when the bell 
rings she knows who is present and can call almost every 
pupil by name without reference to the seating plan. She 
introduces the new pupils to an assistant who stands with 
her at the door and who, in turn, introduces them to the 
other pupils and helps them to find their seats. 

After the opening exercises and a few words of greeting, 
the teacher says : "We are going to try to make this one of 
the best days of the year. Some of us have been getting 
everything ready so we can start right to work." Then she 
explains briefly about the registration and textbook record 
and has pupils distribute paper and pencils. In a few 
minutes the records are collected and the first lesson begins. 

The teacher exerts herself to make the work interesting 
and the pupils respond with enthusiasm. At the close of 
the day, she makes her reports to the ojQ&ce and goes home 
at four o'clock, leaving most of the teachers examining pupils, 
or working on reports, or waiting in line to see the principal. 
By previous arrangement, parents of pupils in the classes 
of the three teachers were notified early in the sunmier that 
all preparations would be made in advance and were asked 
to cooperate in the effort of the teachers to make the first 
week of school as valuable as any other week. The result 
is that, in Miss A.'s class, all but one pupil are on time. 
When he appears at the beginning of the second week, he 
soon finds that he is a fish out of water. He stays after 
school, appeals to his parents for help, and gets more and 



2o8 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

more discouraged. When the first monthly report is 
received, his parents engage a private tutor. His mother 
confides to Miss A. that the youngster declares that he 
will not go away at all next summer unless his father prom- 
ises to bring him back before the opening of school. 

At the first general teachers' meeting, the principal re- 
fers to the experiment and asks the three teachers to relate 
their experiences. They are so enthusiastic and the pleas- 
ure which they have taken in their work is so obvious to 
those who have been going through the harassing task of 
getting classes into working order, that most of the teachers 
agree that all should return early. The principal says: 
^'I have had to begin school twice this year, but it has been 
worth the trouble. I see, as I never did before, that when 
several people have to do a piece of work together, the only 
way to economize time and get the best service from every- 
body is to have preparations made in advance so that each 
one can go to work as soon as he reports for duty." 

Principles Relating to Economy of Time 

1. The teacher's aim should be to secure the maximum of 
accomplishment in a given time in carrying out the purpose of 
education. This involves 

a. Keeping the purpose in mind 
h. Economy of the teacher's time 
c. Economy of the pupil's time 

2. It is necessary to concentrate attention on the important 
things, to give less attention to the less important, and to elim- 
inate the unnecessary. 

3. For economy of time, as well as for the educational effect, 
it is important that each pupil should, as nearly as possible, put 
forth his best effort. This will require differentiation in the work 
assigned. Mass teaching encourages habits of mental laziness 
in pupils. 



PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 209 

4. Teachers should not do work which pupils can do with no 
loss to themselves. Details of classroom management should 
be assigned to pupils in accordance with a system which will 
require little or no attention from the teacher. She should save 
herseK for more important work. 

5. Economy of time requires system. One should have a 
definite time for important duties such as preparation of work, 
professional study, cultural activities, recreation, exercise. 

6. In order to save time regular duties should be reduced to 
habits. One must live up to one's program. 

7. In activities involving the participation of several people, 
time will be wasted unless a plan is developed in advance. Pu- 
pils should never be idle while the teacher is doing work which 
only she can do. Such work should be done outside of class 
time. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 141. — A teacher feels that it is necessary to assign 
some written work every day, so as to be sure that all pupils 
work. As a result he is always swamped with papers and 
usually several days behind in marking them. 

Problem 142. — A teacher works hard in preparing lessons and 
in teaching. She realizes that her pupils are putting forth 
little effort during class periods except during the few minutes 
when they are reciting. She is aware that there is little demand 
for individual effort when the pupil's part is to listen to the 
recitations of others or to follow the book while other pupils 
read, but does not see how to get more individual activity. 

Problem 143. — A teacher plans to start for home on the 
evening of the last day of school. In order to be ready, she be- 
gins collecting books several days ahead, gives pupils written 
work while she works on reports. Some of these are hurried. 
Books and materials are put away without careful arrangement. 
She would like to leave things in better order but can't take 
time to do it, now that she has her reservation. She plans to 
return early and fix things up. Many children are absent during 
the last few days. One parent explains that, since examinations 
are over, there seemed to be no need of keeping the child in 
school and arrangements had been made to go away on a vacation. 

E. T. PEOB. — 14 



2IO PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 

Problem 144. — A primary teacher organizes her class in two 
sections for a part of the work. While she teaches one class in 
reading, the other copies arithmetic examples from the board, 
such as 3 + 2 = ? 5 + 2 = ? etc. Some pupils finish the 
work very quickly and get into mischief. Many make mis- 
takes. 

Problem 145. — A teacher is made chairman of a committee 
to plan and carry out an exhibit of school work. He recalls 
that as a member of the committee, the previous year, he felt 
that a great deal of time was wasted. At the first meeting of 
the committee, the chairman did not seem to have any very 
definite ideas, and as none of the members had made any prep- 
aration, much time was consumed in lengthy and rather indefinite 
discussion. No definite duties were assigned the committee 
members and he himself had felt obliged to ask frequently what 
he was expected to do. These requests had apparently worried 
the chairman and resulted in assignment of some trivial tasks, 
some of which proved to be unnecessary. Several members of 
the committee did nothing at all and finally absented themselves 
from committee meetings. Some plans which were agreed upon 
miscarried because directions to the teachers were misunder- 
stood or were issued too late. The chairman worked so hard 
that she was sick for a week after the exhibit. She felt that the 
other members of the committee were not supporting her, while 
they felt that the affair was poorly managed. The new chair- 
man determines to profit by last year's experience. 

Problem 146. — Once during the year, each class presents an 
assembly program to the school. Dates are assigned at the 
beginning of the year. One teacher, who is asked to have a 
dramatic exercise, is disturbed because she has never done such 
a thing before. It will mean making costumes and decorations, 
and drilling children in their parts. Some of the teachers have 
worked late at night for a week or two before the performance in 
order to get costumes finished, and have complained that the 
preparation took a great deal of time from the regular work of 
the class. 

Problem 147. — A teacher is constantly directing her class. 
In distributing material and collecting it, assigning lessons, 



PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 2 IT 

dismissing the class, and conducting the lessons, she gives orders 
and is alert to see that they are carried out. She feels that the 
class needs constant supervision and she is nervous whenever 
she has to leave the room for a moment. She drags herself to 
school even when she ought to be in bed, because she knows 
that the class will go to pieces if she is absent. Her teaching 
is not very good because the division which is engaged in " seat- 
work " claims so much of her attention, and marking papers 
leaves her Uttle time for preparation. 

Problem 148. — A high school teacher of English is discouraged 
by the grind of marking compositions. She always has a great 
pile of papers to go over and is frequently several days behind. 
Her conscience will not permit her to allow papers to go un- 
marked or to overlook any errors. Pupils keep making the 
same errors. 

Problem 149. — Teachers are required to read at least two 
professional books each year and report upon them. A teacher 
hands in voliuninous abstracts of her two books. The work 
has cost her many weary hours and yet the superintendent is 
not satisfied. He wants to know what important new ideas she 
has gained which she can use. He asks what permanent value 
the written abstracts have, and asks her to try, when she makes 
her next report, to get full value from her reading in less time. 

Problem 150. — A mathematics teacher has the practice of 
having pupils do all the examples in the book, and having those 
assigned for a lesson put on the blackboard next day and cor- 
rected. He is unable to finish the work assigned for the term. 
When it is suggested that it is not necessary to do every example, 
he says that the students apparently need more practice rather 
than less. 

Problem 151. — How would one define loo per cent efficiency 
for a teacher, in so far as the time element is concerned? 

REFERENCES 

Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter IX. 
Sechrist, F. K., Education and the General Welfare, Chapter XVIII. 
Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher. 



CHAPTER X 
PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

Hygiene at School and at Home; the Teacher's 
Responsibility; Cooperation with Parents; the 
Influence op Example 

Problem 152. — A teacher is annoyed by the insistence of the 
superintendent upon what she regards as petty details. Almost 
every time that he visits her room, he looks at the thermometer, 
then closes the steam-valves or opens a window. The shades 
are never adjusted to suit him. He frequently points out to 
her a pupil's seat which is too high or too low. When she re- 
ceives a notice, calling upon teachers to inspect their pupils care- 
fully at the beginning of each session, and to send to the office 
any child who shows signs of illness, she is ready to resign. 
" Teachers have enough to do," she exclaims, " without playing 
janitor and nurse." 

In spite of her annoyance, the teacher never purposely neg- 
lects any of the matters which give the superintendent such 
concern, but she finds it almost impossible to keep them in 
mind. She frequently determines, when she draws the 
shades over the windows in the morning, to shut out the 
glare of direct sunlight, that she will adjust them as soon 
as the sun is high enough to leave the desks on the farther 
side of the room in shadow, and to roll them up entirely 
the moment the sun passes behind the end of the building. 
Nevertheless she usually becomes so absorbed in teaching 
that she fails to notice the condition of light in the room 
\mtil long after the proper time for adjustment has passed 
and not infrequently the shades remain throughout the 

213 



HYCIENE AT SCHOOL AND AT HOME 2l3 

day as she placed them when she arrived in the morning. 
She plans to have the seat of every new pupil adjusted 
on the day when he enters the class, but more often than 
not she forgets to do so. Now and then she calls upon the 
class to straighten up but most of the time she fails to 
observe that some individuals maintain bad postures 
habitually. Again and again, she reahzes at the end of the 
day that she has forgotten to make an inspection of the 
class at the beginning of the session. 

A little sister who is the idol of her heart is in the eighth 
grade. The child is not strong but is passionately devoted 
to her books. She doesn't care for active play but loves to 
read, curled up in an arm-chair. She has been aihng for 
some time and it is finally decided to take her to a speciahst. 
When the teacher reaches home on the day of the examina- 
tion, her mother meets her with a grave face. The doctor 
has found that the child has a serious curvature of the spine. 
It will take a long time to correct the trouble. 

''But what is the reason for it?" our teacher asks, as 
soon as she recovers from the first shock. ''We have 
always been so careful of her!" "The doctor says that 
cases like this are not at all unusual with school children," 
the mother replies. "Edith has been growing very fast 
and her habit of sitting in a cramped posture has caused the 
bones to become distorted and this has interfered with the 
normal action of some of the internal organs. If she had 
been active and spent much of her time in vigorous play, 
the effect of unhygienic posture in school might have been 
counteracted, but now he says that we must not think of 
allowing her to go to school for a year or two." 

The child is broken-hearted and the older sister is both 



214 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

grief-Stricken and angry. "What is the use," she demands, 
"of compulsory education which ruins a child's health? 
I don't care whether she ever knows anything or not, if she 
is only well and happy." 

After a time a saner mood comes to her, and she begins 
to study both sides of the question. She knows, of course, 
that children must go to school. Indeed, the real blow 
to this httle sister of hers is not the thought of suffering, 
but the reaHzation that she is to be deprived of her chief 
interest and that she must drop behind her class. 

"But the schools must take care of the children's 
health," our teacher exclaims. "That must be the first 
consideration. Teachers ought to be trained in hygiene 
and physical education, even if they have to sacrifice 
scholarship." Then it comes over her, all at once, that 
she herseh has been a sinner. She sees what the super- 
intendent has had in mind in fussing about temperature, 
ventilation, and the adjustment of seats. 

The teacher goes back to her work, a different person. 
She no longer has to force herself to remember the regula- 
tions about health. She has become an enthusiast. She 
feels her responsibility keenly and, from that time on, 
the first thing she tries to find out when a pupil enters her 
class is not his ability in arithmetic or spelHng but the con- 
dition of his eyes, his habits of standing and sitting, whether 
he is well nourished, and whether he is afflicted with ade- 
noids. 

"I'll try," she says to herself, "to see that the minds 
of these children have a chance to develop ; but whatever 
else I do, I am going to see that there is a fair deal for 
their bodies." 



COOPERATION WITH PARENTS 21 5 

Problem 153. 

Miss D. : 

Kindly stop telling the children to keep their windows 
open at night. I know better than you do how to take care of 
children. My advice is that you attend to your own work and 
not meddle with people's home affairs. 

Yours truly, 

Margaret Jones 

Miss D. is naturally indignant when she reads this rude 
note. She crumples it into a ball and flings it into the 
waste basket with unnecessary force. "All right!" she 
snaps to an imaginary audience, "there'll be no more med- 
dling from me ! Meddling, indeed ! That's what a teacher 
gets for concerning herself about the children's welfare. 
I'll stick to routine lessons. If parents insist on living in 
the dark ages, let them take the consequences." Without 
deliberate intention, she is curt and haughty, for a day or 
two, in her treatment of the little Jones girl. 

This solution of the problem does not, however, bring 
satisfaction to the teacher. She is too deeply interested 
in the health of her pupils to calmly ignore their lives 
outside of school when she knows that many of them are 
forming habits which are bound to interfere with proper 
physical development. As this aspect of her hasty, half- 
intended resolution impresses itself on her mind, she says to 
herself : "You're a nice kind of teacher ! nursing a grudge 
against an ignorant, tradition-bound woman, and taking 
it out on the children ! You've been steering in the wrong 
direction, just as we did when we lost our bearings in the 
fog last summer. Now get back on the course. Your aim 
is to help these boys and girls to develop strong, healthy 
bodies and you must not allow yourself to be diverted." 



2l6 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

She muses on the difficulties to be overcome and her 
new elation begins to subside. ''What can a teacher do," 
she sighs, ''if the parents refuse to cooperate? And when 
they not only refuse to help but actually combat or ridicule 
the ideas which we try to implant, it seems hopeless." Then 
her fighting blood begins to flow again and she declares : 
"We've simply got to have cooperation. If parents have 
to be educated, so be it. We must find the way. Here's 
where we begin to train Mrs. Jones and Miss D. to work in 
double harness." 

For several months she devotes herself to what she calls 
"the Jones Plot." She sets her heart upon success and 
refuses to be discouraged by rebuffs or unrewarded efforts. 
A genuine interest in the child soon causes the latter to 
respond with warm affection, but for a long time the mother 
resists her tentative efforts. She schools herself to be pa- 
tient and avoid spoiHng her plan by undue precipitancy. 
The battle becomes a stealthy siege rather than an assault. 
One or two brief illnesses which keep the child at home give 
the teacher occasion for calling at the house. At the second 
visit, the youngster's entreaties result in an invitation to 
come in. The bond of affection between the child and the 
teacher, the latter's unfailing good nature, and a consistent 
avoidance of any expression of controversial opinions gradu- 
ally break down the wall of reserve. When she is invited to 
dinner, the teacher learns that there are other reasons than 
an unventilated sleeping room to account for the puny 
development of her little friend. Finally the resistance 
weakens to the point where the mother begins to seek the 
teacher's advice. By that time, however, the latter has 
become so cautious that she is able to refrain from pressing 



THE teacher's RESPONSIBILITY 21 7 

her advantage too far, leaving it to the enemy to make the 
overtures for peace, and limiting herself to a cordial re- 
sponse. In the end, the long campaign not only succeeds 
in opening the windows but causes an improvement in 
diet and establishes a friendship which leads naturally to a 
fruitful cooperation in the interest of the child's health. 

Problem 154. — A teacher, who is admired by her class, teaches 
the regular work in hygiene. The pupils recite glibly on the 
necessity of plenty of sleep and exercise, the importance of warm 
clothing in winter, and the injury caused by stylish shoes. The 
teacher, however, likes pretty clothes, wears very thin garments, 
even in the coldest weather, and dainty shoes with pointed toes 
and high heels. She doesn't get as much sleep as the hygiene 
book calls for and doesn't enjoy any vigorous exercise except 
dancing. The children don't know this, of course, but they do 
know that she is sick rather frequently. 

The teacher first becomes conscious of the problem when 
one of the girls in her class appears in a gauzy waist, with 
her hair done up in poor imitation of the latest style. The 
costume seems to her very inappropriate for a school girl 
and, when several other girls do their best to follow suit, 
one of them wearing high heeled pumps, probably borrowed 
from her older sister, the teacher feels that it is time for 
action. She therefore calls on the mother of one of the 
children and, as tactfully as she can, suggests that Helen's 
premature assumption of the role of debutante is having a 
bad effect upon the class. The mother is half provoked and 
half amused. *' Don't you know what is the matter with 
the girls ? " she exclaims. ''Whom do you suppose they are 
trying to copy?" "Some movie actress, I suppose," the 
teacher ventures. At that the mother bursts into a real 
laugh. "My dear young lady," she says, "if you will 



2l8 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

look in your mirror — a long mirror — you will see where 
they got their model. The imitation is very poor, I admit, 
but you are the pattern of those children. Their end and 
aim is to be like you. All you have to do, to make them wear 
anything or do anything that you wish, is to set the ex- 
ample." 

The teacher is mortified and very much upset. "The 
impudent Httle minxes 1 " she sputters as she walks home. 
''What business have fourteen-year-old children to try to copy 
my clothes ? Must grown women wear pinafores to induce 
infants to dress properly? I'll take that nonsense out of 
them ! " She begins to rehearse the speech which she will 
make to the girls the next morning. ''You must not expect 
to do just what grown people do. They can do things 
safely which would be harmful for girls of your age. You 
look silly when you try to be grown-ups. You ought to 
wear good warm clothing, and broad, low-heeled shoes, and 
you ought to go to bed regularly by half past eight or 
nine. What will become of our attendance record, if you 
don't take care of yourselves?" 

As she makes her silent speech with the faces of the girls 
in her mind's eye, she imagines their reaction. She feels 
that she must be convincing and somehow she is conscious 
of flaws in her argument. She knows that the girls will 
Hsten to whatever she says without offering to dispute her 
statements, but as she delivers her imaginary lecture, she 
is interested in what is going on in their minds, and seems 
to hear their objections as if they were putting their thoughts 
into words. "Why will thin clothes in winter do us any 
more harm than they will you?" "Are high heels and 
narrow toes really good for young ladies?" "Do you 



THE teacher's RESPONSIBILITY 219 

always go to bed early enough to get plenty of sleep?" 
"How about your own attendance?'' 

She tries to put these objections out of her mind but they 
keep recurring. "I guess I'm not cut out for a teacher," 
she thinks. "I can't reconcile myself to going to bed with 
the birds and dressing like a nun. I think a girl of my age 
is entitled to some fun. Guess I'll be a stenographer. 
Apparently they don't have to pose as early Christian 
martyrs." 

In the evening she meets one of the older teachers, a 
woman whom she respects highly and who has often helped 
her solve her teaching problems. She naturally pours 
out her tale to this friend and tentatively advances her 
notion that she is in the wrong vocation. The older woman 
smiles and says: "You might change if you were selfish 
enough to put mere pleasure and freedom of responsibility 
ahead of a really unusual opportunity for service, but you 
won't. You have a gift, which most teachers would give 
anything to possess, — the power of winning the admira- 
tion of children and immediate response to your suggestions. 
This gives you the opportunity to influence children to 
an unusual degree. You have no right to refuse that 
opportunity even if you wished to do so, which I doubt." 

This idea dominates our teacher's reflections for the 
next few hours and before she goes to sleep she has made 
her decision. The next day, instead of calling the girls 
for the contemplated lecture, she appears in the feminine 
counterpart of a business suit, with the only pair of low- 
heeled shoes which she possesses. She notices with amuse- 
ment the discomfiture of the girls who are trying to be in 
style. She does not need to say a word about the inappro- 



22Q PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

priateness of their garb. The offending garments soon 
disappear. 

The teacher proposes that the class make a special effort 
this month to keep fit and see if they cannot improve the 
attendance record, saying that she herself is going to be 
very careful about sleep and exercise. She has no diffi- 
culty in arousing an enthusiastic interest, since she is 
interested herself. The ideal of vigorous health becomes 
strongly impressed on the minds of the pupils. Under the 
leadership of the teacher a troop of girl scouts is organized 
and at the end of the year she realizes that she has never 
been happier nor in better health. Curiously enough her 
friends seem to find her as attractive as ever. She begins 
to think that popularity is not merely a matter of clothes. 

Problem 155. — A teacher is dissatisfied with the results of 
her teaching of hygiene. The pupils learn the subject matter 
given in the textbook and can quote piously the precepts of 
health, but their own habits seem to be as unsanitary as ever, 
and there is no apparent diminution in the amount of sickness. 

The teacher tries the effect of admonition. When she 
sees children bolting their lunches and rushing out to the 
playground, or coming into the room on a rainy morning 
with wet feet or drenched clothing and trying to avoid 
detection for fear of being sent home for dry garments, 
she preaches little sermons. The pupils listen apparently 
but without much interest. Few of them seem to take her 
words to heart. The candy stores and soda counters 
continue to do a thriving business. Pupils read with a 
glare of sunlight on their books and eat lunches with un- 
washed hands unless she takes the responsibility of direct- 
ing their actions, and then obey rather impatiently. She 



THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMPLE 221 

has to be on the watch to prevent some individuals from 
wearing rubbers or overshoes throughout a school session. 
Many have dirty teeth and do all they can to avoid going 
to a dentist even when the medical inspector reports the 
need of immediate attention. Not infrequently she notices 
festering cuts and bruises covered with dirty bandages or 
not protected at all. Children rarely remember, when 
coughing or sneezing, that there is danger of giving others 
a cold like their own. On attending a football game, she 
sees boys drinking from a common cup, although they have 
been used to drinking fountains in the school and know 
their purpose perfectly. Most of the players throw them- 
selves on the ground during intermissions although reeking 
with perspiration. Neither talks to the class nor personal 
advice seems to have any appreciable effect. 

Relating her experiences to a group of friends, our teacher 
says: "Knowledge may be power, but power which is not 
properly appKed is of very little use, I wonder if it is 
possible to educate children so that they will live up to their 
light, when their natural inclinations point in the other 
direction." 

"Why should you expect more of children than of 
adults ? " one of the group inquires. "Don't we all continue 
to drink coffee at midnight, neglect to take regular exer- 
cise, sit up until 3.00 A.M. to finish an exciting book, and 
eat indigestible food? Most people do what they like to 
do, regardless of the well-known laws of health, until they 
are dreadfully frightened by a narrow escape from death, 
or knowledge that they are afflicted with disease. Even 
then many take occasional risks when the effect of the 
first shock has passed away.'' 



222 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

"That's just the point," our teacher declares. "As a 
race we are wasting our physical resources. That is the 
reason, I take it, why hygiene has been made a part of the 
course of study. Some people realize that the pubKc wel- 
fare is threatened by the prevalence of unnecessary sick- 
ness, premature decadence, and untimely death. There- 
fore they have sought to combat the danger by educating 
the youjig. Apparently they have made the mistake of 
supposing that ill-health is chiefly due to ignorance. I 
think we have evidence enough to prove that mere knowl- 
edge of hygiene will not solve the problem. Unless we 
can learn how to make people want to be strong and get 
them to develop habits that are consistent with their 
knowledge, we might as well stop teaching hygiene alto- 
gether." 

This point of view wins general assent. Some of the 
group are pessimistic but the minds of one or two begin at 
once to search for remedies. Presently one of these inter- 
rupts the conversation with an enthusiastic outburst. 
"Let's form ourselves into a study club on health edu- 
cation. I'm tremendously interested. It may be too big 
a problem for us and perhaps the situation is hopeless, as 
some of you seem to think, but if we confine our efforts 
to the education of Miss G.'s class and everybody does 
some hard thinking, we ought to be able, among us, to hit 
upon some way of making progress." 

Some of the party are incHned to laugh at the proposal 
but a few take it seriously and all agree to meet a week 
later and continue the discussion. At that time it appears 
that some of the group or club, as the originator of the idea 
insists on calling it, have given the subject no further 



THE INFLIfENCE OF EXAMPLE 223 

thought. Others have pondered the problem from time 
to time but confess that they have made no headway. One 
of them says: "It seems to me that the only thing that 
can be done is to tell people the facts about health and 
disease and then leave the responsibility with them. People 
of the thoughtful, conscientious type — a small minority — 
will make use of this knowledge and the rest of us will 
ignore more or less of it until it is too late. I disagree with 
the view that we ought to stop teaching hygiene because so 
few people put their knowledge into practice. Every- 
body should be informed. Some of the facts will probably 
sink in and affect the conduct of some individuals at some 
time or other. That is very far from an adequate solution, 
of course, but, for the life of me, I can't see how you can 
make a person take care of himself unless he wants to do so 
and has enough will power to do what he knows he ought 
to do." 

One of the most thoughtful members of the club then 
takes the floor. "I agree with the last speaker," he says, 
"and I have been puzzling over the question, 'How can a 
person be educated to want a thing so much that he will 
do nothing which he knows will stand in the way of his 
desire ? ' When a person has not enough will power to do 
what he ought to do in order to accomplish something, it 
really means that his desire for that thing is not as great 
as his desire for something else which conflicts with it. 

With most of us, instinctive desires and those which have 
been stimulated by custom are too strong to be overcome 
in our everyday actions by the rather indefinite ideal of 
conservation of health. If pupils are to learn to make the 
most of themselves physically, they must be led to want 



224 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

to be strong and well even more than they want unlimited 
cake, or freedom from the nuisance of toothbrushing, or 
postponement of the pain associated with a visit to the 
dentist. 

As I thought about the question, it occurred to me to 
try to trace back some of the ideals which have had a con- 
siderable influence on my life and have enabled me at times 
to avoid what might be regarded as the easier or the pleas- 
anter course. I thought that this method might furnish 
some clues to the proper procedure for educating children 
in matters of health. I discovered, on reflection, that 
some of these ideals first became impressed upon my mind 
through reading, but usually they were associated with 
people whom I admired or for whom I had a strong affec- 
tion. Even in the cases in which the ideal had its source 
in a book which I had read, it was almost always represented 
by an interesting character saying something or doing 
something which I admired. This was always true in the 
case of ideals which I could definitely trace back to the 
years of childhood or youth. I am inclined to think, 
therefore, that Miss G. would do well to try to bring her 
pupils into contact with people who are attractive to 
children of their age and whose lives make self-denial for 
the sake of physical well-being appealing." 

This suggestion opens a new path for the other minds 
whose thoughts had been traveling in a circle, and many 
illustrations are offered in harmony with the last speaker's 
experience. It is agreed to follow out the new lead and 
bring to the next meeting concrete suggestions for work in 
the classroom. This meeting proves to be intensely inter- 
esting, with many suggestions and vigorous discussion. 



THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMPLE 22$ 

The most valuable proposals which Miss G. carries away 
in her notebook are these : 

1. Enthusiastic devotion by the teacher to the health ideal in 
her own life, with occasional references to her experiences, 
not in the form of exhortation to do likewise, but casually, 
as one talks to friends about the things which are very near 
his heart. 

2. Public approval of worthy examples among the members of 
the class. 

3. Occasional visits from individuals attractive to young people 
who are good exponents of the doctrine of health. 

4. Interesting books for boys and girls in which characters 
which they admire meet successfully situations involving a 
choice between right and wrong in regard to physical 
welfare, or in which characters who keep themselves fit are 
able to accomplish things which appeal to boys and girls. 
A considerable number of such books is listed. 

At later meetings, Miss G. is able to report the results 
of some of the suggestions as she puts them to the test. 
Unexpected difficulties are encountered and remedies 
suggested. The process of developing habits consistent 
with ideals occupies the club for several meetings, and the 
value of commendation of the smallest progress, encourage- 
ment of those who become disheartened, avoidance of 
lapses when one has begun a new course of action, and the 
stimulation of group interest are all emphasized by concrete 
experiences. 

By the end of the term, Miss G. herself has acquired a 
stimulating ideal which has already made an appreciable 
change in her life. The class has become keenly interested 
in their own physical welfare and has made real progress 
in developing hygienic habits. They have formed a Keep 
Fit Club whose members are ashamed when they are sick 

E. T. PROB. IS 



226 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

and are really exercising a good deal of self-control in the 
effort to maintain a record of "No time lost by sickness." 
The club occasionally invites physicians, physical training 
instructors, and athletes to speak at their meetings. Some 
individuals are refractory and very few are proof against 
the temptations of the appetite, but as Miss G. remarks: 
"We can afford to wait for the millennium." 

Principles Relating to Health 

1. A vast amount of waste and unhappiness is due to sickness 
and physical weakness. Hence one of the most important 
problems, both for the pubUc and for the individual, is the con- 
servation of health. 

2. Most people fail to make the most of themselves physi- 
cally, partly from lack of knowledge, partly from lack of ideals. 
The schools can do no more important work than to impart 
knowledge necessary to health, cultivate hygienic habits, and 
especially to inculcate ideals of physical efficiency. 

3. In deaUng with the problem of children's health, coopera- 
tion between the school and the home is needed. 

) 4. Teachers should be as much interested in the health of 
<A their pupils as in their mental development and should feel 

/ responsibility to the same degree. 

^ 5. In order to get the best results, teachers must themselves 
have high ideals of health and must set a good example of hy- 
gienic Uving. 

6. As public servants upon whom much depends, teachers 
should feel a high sense of responsibility for keeping themselves 
physically fit. Illness should not always be regarded as a mis- 
fortune ; it is- often the result of neglect of duty. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 156. — The rule of the school requires a teacher to 
inspect pupils at the beginning of each session and to send to 
the office any who show signs of not being well. She wonders 
how she can learn to " spot " suspicious cases. 



HYGIENE AT SCHOOL AND AT HOME 227 

Problem 157. — A child is pale and shows little energy. The 
teacher knows that he comes from a poor home, and suspects 
that he does not get enough to eat. She is greatly troubled and 
feels that something ought to be done, but does not see how she 
can do anything to help. 

Problem 158. — A class has a party at the school. The chil- 
dren furnish refreshments. They consist almost entirely of 
cake and candy, with ice-cream, of course. Everyone eats all 
he can hold, and many respond to the appeal to " have another 
piece — we don't want to have anything left." 

Problem 159. — A teacher works beyond her strength and is 
in poor physical condition. She has a highly developed sense 
of duty and takes pride in always being at her post even when 
she ought to be in bed. 

Problem 160. — In a school system, much time is lost by 
teachers because of sickness. There is, of course, a serious 
loss in efficiency of the school work. The superintendent ex- 
presses the opinion that teachers are imder obligation to the 
public to keep themselves in the best possible physical condition. 
He asks each teacher to consider whether she is doing her full 
duty in this respect. 

Problem 161. — A teacher who has not missed a day on account 
of sickness in ten years says, half in joke, that she thinks she 
ought to have her pay raised. She knows that most teachers 
lose some time and some lose a great deal, because of illness. 
Her point is that she is of more service to the school than if she 
were away from her post occasionally. Another teacher says 
that this is no credit to her. She is blessed with good health 
and ought to be thankful. K anything, the teacher who is 
frequently sick ought to have the highest pay, because her needs 
are greater. 

Problem 162. — The board of education is impressed with the 
loss due to illness of teachers and, in the hope of improvement, 
retains physicians at its own expense, urging teachers to go to 
these physicians regularly for examination and medical advice. 
Very few teachers respond. The general sentiment is that this 
is the teacher's own private affair. 



228 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH 

Problem 163. — A teacher is assigned to a basement room, 
poorly lighted, and without ventilation. She feels that this may 
affect her health, and when another teacher leaves, asks to be 
transferred to the vacant position. She wonders what a friend 
means when he says that she is dodging the issue. 

Problem 164. — A parent calls on a teacher to explain that her 
daughter has been in frail health and the physician advises 
that she be kept out of school. The child, however, is broken- 
hearted and the mother wishes to try the experiment of allowing 
her to attend school only in the morning. The teacher feels 
that it will establish a bad precedent to allow children to think 
that any departure can be made from the regular school hours. 

Problem 165. — During an epidemic of scarlet fever, the prin- 
cipal asks the teachers to try to plan lessons which will help to 
check the spread of the disease. 

REFERENCES 

Hoag, E. B,, and Terman, L. M., Health Work in the Schools. 
Rapeer, L. W., Educational Hygiene, Chapters III, IV, XXV-XXX. 
Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter XVIII. 
Sechrist, F. K., Education and the General Welfare. 
Stray er, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. 
Terman, L. M., The Teacher's Health. 
Curtis, H. S., Recreation for Teachers. 
Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child. 
Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher, 
Chapters XI,^XIV. 



CHAPTER XI 

PROBLEMS OF RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

Purpose of Supervision; Teachers and Supervisors; 
Cooperation 

Problem 166. — A teacher, who has worked for a few years in 
a small school in which there is little or no supervision and has 
acquired a technic of her own, begins to teach in a much larger 
system in which the principals give a good deal of time to supervi- 
sion, and supervisors of drawing, industrial arts, music, and phys- 
ical training have charge of the work in those subjects. She 
finds it difficult to adapt herself to the change. She is 
uncomfortable when supervisors visit her room. She feels that 
they are observing her critically and this feeling prevents her 
doing herself justice. She is very sensitive toward suggestions 
and criticisms, regarding them as humiliating reflections upon 
her skill. She feels that supervisors of special subjects are 
unnecessary and that principals should concern themselves with 
matters of discipline and administration. She is invited to 
return to her former position. The salary offered is less than 
she is receiving but her expenses would be less. Her impulse is 
to accept but she decides to explain the situation to the 
superintendent before making a final decision. 

The teacher makes an appointment for an interview with 
the superintendent and, at the appointed time, shows him 
the letter which she has received from her former employers, 
explains why she has been dissatisfied and unhappy in her 
present position, and says: ^'It would be a great rehef 
if I could get away from these distasteful conditions and 
go back where I could be free to do my own work in my own 
way and have it appreciated. Nevertheless, I do not want to 

229 



230 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

make a mistake. I have looked forward to the opportunity 
of working in a larger system and now that I have it, I 
do not want to throw it away until I am sure that my ambi- 
tion was a mistaken one. Therefore I should like your 
advice before I answer this letter." 

Before he replies, the superintendent spends several 
minutes in reflection, jotting down notes occasionally. 
Then he says: "I think I understand your state of mind 
but, before I can advise you, I shall need to know whether 
it can be changed. Unless you can come to see things in a 
different light, it will probably be better for you to go. Let 
us go over the points of your indictment of your present 
situation. I have made a list of them, putting them in my 
own order. 

1. Supervision by speciaUsts and principals is unneces- 
sary — merely annoying. 

2. Their plans and the methods which they advocate 
conflict with your own ideas and the practices which you 
have worked out to your own satisfaction. 

3. You are embarrassed by their critical observation. 

4. You feel that they underestimate your ability since 
you are unable to do your best work under observation. 

5. Their criticisms are not vaHd — merely humiHating. 
Now let us consider these five points and see if your 

position is sound. If you convince me that it is, the logical 
thing for me to do is to try to change our procedure and 
then, presumably, you will be glad to stay. If, after our 
discussion, you are still convinced that you are right while 
I stand up for our scheme of supervision, you will be justi- 
fied in withdrawing after a reasonable notice. On the other 
hand, if I convince you that you have not seen things in 



PURPOSE OF SUPERVISION 23 1 

the right light, you may get a new point of view which 
will enable you to enjoy your work. 

Could we dispense with supervision without loss to the 
schools? Why do practically all school systems of any 
considerable size make supervisors a part of their organiza- 
tion, and why do writers on school administration urge 
that principals give more of their time to supervision? 
Why does the opposition to supervision always come from 
teachers or members of school boards or, in the case of 
special supervisors, from principals, but never from superin- 
tendents? You may say that superintendents become so 
enamored of the joy of managing other people that they 
overdo the process, try to plan all the details of school 
work and, with the aid of supervisors, undertake to make 
everybody carry out their ideas, instead of recognizing that 
teachers have some ability to think and plan. I admit that 
this is sometimes so and that when supervision becomes 
domination and checks initiative, it is harmful; but not 
all superintendents are martinets and even those who are 
striving to encourage initiative among their teachers seem 
to believe in the importance of supervision quite as much 
as the others. They have a different conception of super- 
vision — but we will come to that later. 

I beheve that the chief reason why progressive superin- 
tendents have urged the employment of special supervisors, 
— often against strong opposition — and have encouraged 
principals to regard supervision as their most important 
duty, is that they are responsible for the work of the school 
system as a whole. They have a better opportunity than 
anyone else to compare the work of one teacher with another, 
to observe continuity or lack of continuity in the develop- 



232 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

ment of a group of children, and to estimate the degree 
of success which the school system as a working organization 
is attaining. Your school board member, who probably 
has never made any study of education and, except when 
complaints come to him from parents, is apt to assume 
that the schools are all right, naturally opposes any additional 
expenditure. He has to be shown, before he will admit 
that a supervisor is necessary. Sometimes the possibiKty 
of cutting fifteen hundred dollars from the budget and 
winning the approval of tax-payers makes him confident 
that a supervisor can be dropped without loss to the schools. 
If he is confirmed in this view by even a single teacher, 
the superintendent may find it impossible to retain what 
he has gained by long effort and regards as a vital element 
in his organization. 

Principals sometimes object to special supervisors because 
they like to keep the control of their schools in their own 
hands and the visits of supervisors complicate their pro- 
grams, and limit their freedom of disposing of the time of 
their teachers. I think it is fair to say, however, that the 
finest type of principal is usually in favor of supervision. 

Your own statement shows clearly enough why teachers 
often feel that it would be an advantage if supervision were 
eliminated. Perhaps the chief cause of objection to super- 
vision on the part of teachers, principals, and indirectly 
of school board members is the unattractive personalities 
or unwise actions of individual supervisors, but you will 
agree with me that such special cases ought not to condemn 
the principle. My point is that it is difficult for all these 
groups — teachers, principals, and board members — to 
obtain more than a partial view of the whole situation and 



TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS 233 

that, since superintendents, who are responsible for the 
whole enterprise and have the best opportunity of viewing 
it as a whole, consider supervision essential, it would be 
well to try to look at the matter through their eyes before 
condemning the practice. 

Now let us imagine that all of our supervisors should be 
dismissed and principals should confine their efforts to 
administrative problems. What difference "would that 
make in the work of our schools ? In the first place, some 
of our younger teachers would fail and have to leave with a 
disheartening sense of failure at the beginning of an an- 
ticipated career. Worse yet, their classes would suffer a 
serious injury at the hands of a poor teacher, possibly a 
succession of poor teachers, before someone could be found 
to handle the situation without help. Teaching is a diffi- 
cult job. I doubt if we can rely upon revelation as a basis 
for success in teaching any more than in plumbing. Both 
require apprenticeship and, in my opinion, this preliminary 
training is vastly more important for the young teacher 
than for the prospective artisan. A very important part 
of the work of principals and supervisors is the initiation 
of the new members into the profession." 

*'Then why not limit supervision to beginners?" the 
teacher interrupts. "Why bother those who have already 
worked out their salvation?" 

"How long have you taught?" the superintendent asks. 
" Two years, " is the reply. "And how much time have you 
spent in the study of education?" "I graduated from 
normal school — two years' course." "Do you feel that 
you have completely mastered the art of teaching?" "Of 
course not," the teacher replies somewhat impatiently. 



234 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

"I expect to make progress every year." "Then you 
expect to know a good deal more about education ten years 
from now, if you should continue to teach so long, than you 
do at present?" "Naturally !" 

"Well," says the superintendent, "the principal of your 
school has taught for more than twenty years, has met all 
kinds of problems, and helped teachers in all kinds of 
difficulties. Every one of the supervisors has had ten years 
or more of experience and has spent a great deal of time in 
the study of his special field. Don't you believe that they 
have something to contribute which would help you to 
make more rapid progress than you can make by your 
own efforts?" 

The teacher is somewhat taken aback by this question. 
" Ye-es," she replies, "but I think one gains power by work- 
ing things out for one's self." "Undoubtedly," the super- 
intendent agrees. "It would be poor supervision that left 
no opportunity for a teacher to exercise initiative and to 
learn much by experience, but on the other hand progress 
would be very slow if nobody should take advantage of 
what others have learned. You would not advocate, I 
presume, the abandonment of cook books, cooking schools, 
and instruction of daughters by their mothers, in order that 
every girl might learn to cook by her own unaided efforts. 
Why should not a teacher need the advice and direction of 
more experienced members of the profession?" 

"I suppose you are right," the teacher assents, "but I 
hate to give up the methods which I discovered by hard 
work and which I find successful." 

"We will come to that in a minute," the superintendent 
goes on. "Let us consider another difficulty which would 



TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS 235 

arise, if we should abandon all supervision. Each teacher 
would teach in hfer own way. Those who have special 
ability and interest in music would probably teach the 
subject effectively but without sufficient relation to the work 
in other grades. Those who are not much interested in 
music would be apt to slight it. Even with a very definite 
course of study there would be great variation among the 
different classes. We should have a lot of independent 
efforts, some good, some bad, with more or less duplication 
and no consistent development from grade to ^ade." 

"I think that difficulty could be avoided through con- 
ferences among teachers,'^ the young woman argues. "Per- 
haps it could but I doubt if it would. * What is everybody's 
business,' you know. I have thought for a long time that 
we ought to have a supervisor of nature study or elementary 
science. I have urged the value of this subject, have 
held conferences, and furnished outlines, but the work 
which is actually going on is very 'patchy.' A few teachers 
are enthusiasts and do splendid work, others do something 
in a desultory way, and some neglect the subject altogether. 
There is no systematic regular progress from grade to grade. 

You said a moment ago that it is hard for you to give up 
your own methods when they conffict with the ideas of a 
supervisor. You ought not to give them up until you have 
explained them thoroughly and given your reasons for 
believing them superior to the ones proposed. Some 
supervisors may not be open-minded enough to give you a 
fair hearing but that is the fault of individual supervisors 
not of supervision. If you are open-minded yourself and 
try to understand the proposed plan, offering to try it out 
and striving to get the best possible results, the good super- 



236 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

visor will be willing to let the comparative results determine 
the decision. It will help you, I think, if you keep in mind 
that the important thing is the progress of the children, 
and make your pride in your own plan quite subordinate 
to that aim. 

One of your complaints is that you are embarrassed and 
unable to do your best work when supervisors visit your 
room. The best way that I know of to overcome that 
f eeHng is to keep your mind on your purpose — helping 
the pupils to accompHsh as much as possible. If you can 
do this, you will be less conscious of yourself and less 
troubled about what the supervisor thinks about you. 
Don't be afraid to let the supervisor see all your difficulties. 
He can help you most if you ask him to observe the kind 
of work with which you are least satisfied. When I was 
learning to drive an automobile, I was frightened to death 
at the thought of driving through a crowded street, and 
I was very anxious that the young man who was instruct- 
ing me should not consider me utterly stupid. I had a 
strong inclination to keep to the broad, unfrequented 
streets where my modicum of experience would enable me 
to appear like a veteran. Nevertheless, my reason told 
me that this was my chance to get all the help which the 
instructor could give me. In a few days, having obtained a 
license, I should have to blunder my own way out of difh- 
culties and perhaps smash the car in the process. There- 
fore I set my jaw and drove again and again through traffic. 
It was not much fun but I learned a lot. 

Now my advice is that you set to work to learn all you 
can from the supervisors. Never mind if they do sometimes 
underestimate your ability. If you really have the abihty, 



TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS 237 

you can afford to grin at their mistakes. Tell them to 
criticize you severely, that you aren't afraid of criticism 
if they give it to you straight, and show them that you can 
profit by criticism. 

Finally, let me emphasize one point which I have already 
touched upon. It is a thought which has helped me very 
much as teacher, principal, and superintendent. Don't take 
a personal view of your professional relations with super- 
visors. Remember your main purpose and don't let per- 
sonal feelings interfere with it. You may think that a 
supervisor has been unfair. He may have said something 
which has hurt your feelings. It is quite possible that the 
fault was unintentional. If not, he has only hurt himself, 
not you, unless you choose to be hurt. If you nurse a 
grudge, you will injure your work. If you keep your mind 
on your purpose, you can ignore the injury and often you 
will find it imaginary." 

The teacher thanks him and says, as she rises to depart 
"I'm afraid I can't measure up to your ideal, but I'll try 
not to dodge the traffic." 

Problem 167. — One of the teachers of a school system is made 
supervisor of drawing. Some of the teachers who have taught 
as long as she has resent the appointment. The public com- 
mendation, which she received while a teacher, for her work in 
drawing, aroused jealousy and led these teachers to make sneer- 
ing remarks. At conferences led by the new supervisor, her 
opponents take little part, assuming a bored attitude and oc- 
casionally offering objections to her proposals. Some of them 
pay little attention to her directions and continue to teach in 
their own way. On one occasion, the supervisor makes the 
remark that the superintendent expects her to bring about an 
improvement in the work in drawing, meaning that he has put 
upon her special responsibility for accomplishment. The re- 



238 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

mark becomes modified by frequent repetition until she is gener- 
ally believed to have said that the superintendent will see that 
her plans are carried out. This and other misinterpretations 
add to the opposition. The supervisor proposes to introduce 
a new set of drawing books involving a novel method and an- 
nounces a series of weekly conferences for the purpose of studying 
the plan. This causes a storm of indignation behind the scenes, 
and the chief objectors declare that it is time to stop this folly. 
The discussion spreads rapidly through the whole teaching staff 
and a group of teachers visits members of the board of educa- 
tion and declares that the teachers have lost confidence in the 
supervisor and that her continuance would be a detriment to 
the schools. They consider the employment of a supervisor 
of drawing a useless expense. The superintendent learns of 
the situation from the president of the board and summons 
the ring-leaders for a conference. 

The superintendent opens the conference by saying: 
"I need your help in meeting a situation which threatens 
serious disturbance in our schools. It is reported that there 
is opposition among the teachers to Miss M. as supervisor. 
Some teachers have even been to see members of the board 
of education and urged that she be dismissed from the 
position. I say that the situation threatens to injure the 
schools. The dismissal or demotion of a member of the 
staff is almost sure to arouse intense feeling and may even 
cause a factional division. I am asking your help because 
most of you have taught here for a long time and must 
therefore have a strong interest in the welfare of the 
schools. You are in a position to know the attitude of 
teachers and I have reason to believe that your influence 
will count with them." 

The teachers are uneasy during this explanation. They 
had not expected this method of approach, but had prepared 
themselves for hostility, anticipating a defense of the supers 



TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS 239 

visor. They do not wish to accept any responsibility for 
the situation and especially dislike the idea of coming out 
in the open as leading figures in a controversy. Those 
who visited the board members had asked that their 
names be kept out of the matter. Their idea was that the 
board would act without disclosing the source of its infor- 
mation. The suggestion that they cooperate in a solution 
of the problem rather frightens them. Some start to dis- 
claim any special knowledge of the subject and to deny 
that they are influential with other teachers, but when the 
superintendent offers to enlarge the committee by inviting 
any others whom they may name, they have no suggestions 
to make. He goes on : 

"We ought to know first how general this opposition is 
and the basis for it. Will you tell me what you know about 
that?" Nobody volunteers an answer so he calls upon 
individuals. One or two profess to know of no definite 
opposition and others declare that there is a great deal of 
opposition but they have no knowledge of the reason for it. 
Some say that the supervisor insists upon impractical 
methods, that she hurts teachers' feelings by tactless 
remarks, and that teachers have no confidence in her ability 
or judgment. One of the group forgets to be impersonal 
and relates with much feeling some of her own experiences. 
"Did you talk over these matters with Miss M.?" the 
superintendent inquires. "Of course I didn't," she replies. 
"After what she said to me, I don't intend to have any 
more to do with her than I can help." "Are you sure that 
she was aware that she had hurt your feelings? " "Well, 
if she wasn't she ought to have been." 

"I am not trying to defend Miss M.," the superintendent 



240 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

continues. "I am not in a position to judge of the merits 
of the case, because I have not all the facts. I have your 
statement of Miss M.'s words, which I do not question, and 
I know the impression which they made upon you, but in 
order to interpret the case accurately I should have to know 
what was in her mind, what she really intended. The 
longer I live, the more convinced I become of the difficulty 
of making upon the mind of another person the exact im- 
pression which one wishes to make. It is difficult enough 
when one gives his whole attention to it, and, in the casual, 
unpremeditated remarks which one is constantly making, 
the chance of misunderstanding is very great. One of 
the worst sources of trouble in this world is misunderstand- 
ing. Many a worthy enterprise is wrecked because people 
who start to work together fail to understand each other. 
There is a falling out and the enterprise is retarded if not 
abandoned. I hope you will not think that I am preaching. 
I am simply relating my experience, and I am going to tell 
you a few things which I believe with all my heart. 

No group of people can work together successfully unless 
they believe in each other and disregard each other's appar- 
ent peculiarities. We are all queer — from the other 
person's standpoint, that is, we all have our pecuKar points 
of view. We cannot see into each other's minds perfectly. 
We are bound to differ in tastes, habits, and temperament. 
We are bound to clash unless we are tolerant of each other's 
peculiarities. There are two articles in my creed which 
help me a great deal in working with other people. The 
first is 'Keep your mind on the main purpose.' Don't 
be side-tracked by personal irritations. In working with 
other people, try to act in a way which will accomplish most 



TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS 24 1 

in carrying out the common purpose. The second article 
is 'Be frank in your relations with other people.' When a 
difficulty arises, when another person does something or 
says something which you dislike, especially if it is some- 
thing which may hamper the accomplishment of the enter- 
prise in which you are both engaged, have it out with him 
face to face. Don't maintain an offended silence and don't, 
above all things, tell about his outrageous conduct to other 
people, for such action, while it may give you some personal 
satisfaction, will not further your main purpose. Set 
your mind on straightening out the difficulty and don't 
waste time in being 'sore' about it. If my experience is 
typical, the difficulty, when handled as I suggest, will 
almost always prove to be due to misunderstanding." 

The only definite criticism of Miss M. which is generally 
agreed upon is the attempt to introduce the new course in 
drawing and the plan of special conferences in preparation 
for it. The superintendent tries to obtain accurate state- 
ments about the new books, but without much success. 
When he asks one of the teachers to point out certain 
weaknesses which she has referred to, she is unable to do so 
and he is able to show that some alleged omissions do not, 
in fact, exist. The teachers admit that they have not 
examined the books carefully but have rehed upon reports 
coming from others. 

"Now," says the superintendent, "do you think that the 
case against Miss M. is strong enough to justify anyone 
in going into court with a recommendation for her dis- 
missal? If she is inefficient or in any other way a detri- 
ment to the schools, we ought to secure her withdrawal, 
but I confess that I should be very doubtful of convincing 

E. T. PROB. 16 



242 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

fair-minded people that she ought to be dismissed upon 
such evidence as we seem to have. It would injure the 
schools very seriously and diminish public esteem for the 
complainants if the matter should appear as an unjust 
attack upon an individual. Even if the school board 
should be so impressed by the attitude of teachers as to 
dismiss Miss M. without attempting to make a thorough 
investigation of the facts, I cannot believe that any con- 
siderable number of teachers would be satisfied. What 
shall we do ? " 

"Drop the whole thing, I suppose," one of the teachers 
replies in a tone of indifference. 

"Are you satisfied, apart from the danger of factional 
strife which might be caused by Miss M.'s dismissal, that it 
will be to the advantage of the schools to retain her as super- 
visor ? Will the teachers cooperate with her heartily ? " 

"Indeed they won't. We have told you that teachers 
have no confidence in her. If we drop the matter, it will 
be simply to avoid a row." 

"If that is the case, it seems to me that it would be a 
mistake to simply drop the affair, for that would leave the 
problem unsolved. Let us see if we cannot think of a 
plan by which we can reach a real solution." 

One of the teachers suggests that if the supervisor could 
be induced to resign, the matter would be settled. "Are 
you sure that that would completely overcome the diffi- 
culty ? " the superintendent asks. 

"I don't think so," one repHes. "She would still feel 
that she had been forced out, and a good many people, even 
a few teachers, would side with her. It would probably 
leave a sense of injury which would last for some time." 



co6pera.tion with supervisors 243 

No other suggestion is forthcoming until the superintend- 
ent says: "Let us state the problem as it now appears. 
Many teachers feel that Miss M. is not a satisfactory 
supervisor but there is not sufficient evidence to convince 
fair-minded people that she ought to be dismissed. Does 
that suggest the next step?" One replies: "We ought to 
collect evidence/' and another : "We might ask the teachers 
to report every case in which they have cause of complaint. 
At the end of the year we should be able to back up our 
contention." 

"I don't think that is quite fair to Miss M.," one of the 
teachers objects. " This conference has raised doubts in 
my mind. I am not sure that we have given her a fair 
chance. If we follow the plan just suggested we shall be 
prejudicing the case in advance by inviting teachers to look 
for trouble. I agree that we ought to have a year's trial 
but during that time I think we ought to pitch in and do 
everything we can to help her. If we do that and at the 
end of the time the work is not going well, perhaps she will 
see that she is not fitted for the position and resign volun- 
tarily. If not, perhaps our superintendent would be ready 
to advise her to do so. However, I am inclined to think 
that if we all do our best to make her work a success, we 
shall have a very different feeling by the end of the year." 

This suggestion wins approval from most of the members 
of the conference and the discussion then turns to the method 
of changing the state of mind of the disaffected teachers. 
Most of the schools are represented in the informal com- 
mittee, and it is agreed that each one will talk with other 
teachers individually or in groups, explaining the situation 
as it now appears and trying to win their support for a trial 



244 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

which aims not at defeat of the supervisor but at success 
for the schools. 

Problem 168. — A supervisor explains to the teachers' the possi- 
bilities of project work in his department. He gives several 
illustrations and furnishes a list of projects, saying that teachers 
may select from these or propose their own. He offers to give 
help but asks teachers to cooperate in working out the details. 
Several teachers have a discussion after the meeting. One 
says that the supervisor is calling upon teachers to do his work. 
" He ought," she says, " to tell us exactly what to do in each 
grade. I have no time to work the scheme out for him." An- 
other teacher is inclined to sympathize with the speaker but, 
as she thinks the matter over, certain doubts enter her mind 
and she asks herself what the relationship of teacher and super- 
visor should be in developing a new piece of work. 

The teacher's first thought is that the supervisor ought 
to take the responsibility for working out new plans. 
She thinks: ''He is paid a higher salary because he is 
supposed to know more about his subject than teachers do. 
If teachers are to do the planning, where is the need of a su- 
pervisor ? His salary ought to be used to increase teachers' 
salaries." Then she begins to think of what was presented 
at the conference and admits that the supervisor's part in 
it must have cost considerable time and effort. She doubts 
whether any of the teachers could have presented the 
subject so clearly. Certainly very few of them could have 
done so, and probably none of them could have given 
illustrations which would apply to so many grades. 

*'Then why should he not work the whole scheme out in 
detail for all of us?" she asks herself. During the discus- 
sion after the meeting some of the teachers had seemed to 
think that he was trying to save himself work. She doesn't 
fully believe this and, as she thinks about it, the thought 



COOPERATION WITH SUPERVISORS 245 

comes to her that the test of the matter should be the 
actual accomplishment in the education of the children. 
The question becomes: "Is that accomplishment likely 
to be better if teachers take part in working out the new 
plan than if they simply follow the supervisor's directions ? " 
Arguments on both sides occur to her. Some teachers 
could work out excellent plans and get them in operation 
more quickly than could be done if the supervisor had to 
work out every project in detail. Any project which is 
planned for a given grade in all schools would sometimes be 
less successful than one which has been developed for a 
particular group of children. On the other hand, many 
teachers have not sufficient ingenuity to develop a new 
scheme as the supervisor could do it if he could give suffi- 
cient time to the problem. She has no great confidence in 
her own ability to work out a successful project. 

The teacher comes to no definite conclusion but thinks 
about the matter occasionally during the following week, 
trying to decide what project to take. The suggested 
projects for her grade, the fifth, are : 

I. A program for the school assembly. 
^ 2. A class history containing events in the school career 
of the class and accounts of interesting experiences of in- 
dividuals, the record to be bound, decorated, and illustrated 
by members of the class. 

3. A study of the birds to be seen in and about the town. 

None of these appeals to her very strongly although she 
thinks that any one of them could be made interesting. 
She decides to let the class choose but before the time 
comes when she had planned to put the question before the 
children, a situation arises which causes her to change 



246 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

her mind. During a geography lesson the children become 
much interested in some of the pictures in the textbook. 
The next day one of the boys brings a copy of the National 
Geographic Magazine which is examined with dehght and 
furnishes material for enthusiastic discussion. Other 
children are fired with zeal for collecting geographical 
pictures, the bulletin board is soon filled and the disposal 
of the material becomes a problem. The supervisor's 
suggestion of a class history gives the teacher an idea and 
she suggests that the class might make some geographies 
of their own. This idea is seized upon with avidity and the 
project is launched. 

The teacher meets many problems as the work proceeds. 
It is hard to keep the new project from monopolizing the 
class time. Some of the children want to talk endlessly, 
and some begin to lose interest quickly. When she men- 
tions her difficulties to the supervisor, he usually has some 
helpful suggestions to offer. He is appreciative of her 
efforts and occasionally visits the class to see the growing 
books and talk with the children about new acquisitions. 
He frequently uses this project in explaining to other 
teachers how to go to work, and asks the teacher to give 
an account of her experience at one of the conferences. 
At his suggestion, the pupils give a talk on geography at 
the school assembly, using lantern sHdes made from some 
of their own pictures. 

Toward the end of the term, after a meeting at which the 
supervisor commends the work of some of the teachers and 
urges others to try to work out their own projects, a teacher 
reiterates the statement: "If he wants project teaching 
let him assign the work for us to do." Our teacher re- 



COOPERATION WITH SUPERVISORS 247 

sponds: "I think he is right in asking us to do some of 
the planning. I am sure that it is an advantage to us to be 
able to choose the project which appeals most strongly to 
the individual class. If we take prescribed projects it 
will be harder to get the children to work with a purpose 
of their own. We ought to be able ordinarily to tell better 
what suits our particular classes than the supervisor can. 
At least, those of us who are experienced teachers ought to 
be able to do so. I don't want to be told just what to do. 
It has been real fun to work the problem out, and I think 
I have gained power in teaching and a better understanding 
of the problem of education by trying to think the scheme 
out for myself. It seems to me that we are bound to make 
better progress if, instead of letting the supervisor do all 
the planning and following his directions, we all do our 
best to accomplish the purpose. To my mind, the relation 
of supervisors and professional teachers should not be that 
of directing and following directions as in a miHtary organi- 
zation but rather cooperation under leadership." 



Principles in Regard to Relationship 
WITH Supervisors 

1. The purposes of supervision are : 

a. To secure unity of effort of all who participate in 

the work of the school system. 
h. To give help and guidance to the teacher, especially 

to one who is new in the work. 
c. To get the best possible results in carrying out the 

purposes of the school system. 

2. Supervisors have, or should have, a more comprehensive 
view of purposes, methods, and accomplishment than the 
individual teacher has. The supervisor should know more 



248 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

of the subject matter and method in his field than the in- 
dividual teacher is likely to know. 

3. The teacher and supervisor should have common purposes. 
The relationship should be one of cooperation. 

4. The teacher should feel responsibility for helping to get the 
greatest benefit for the school which supervision can give. 
She should take the initiative where this seems to be neces- 
sary for the best results. She should not feel that it is all 
" up to the supervisor." 

5. The relationship between teacher and supervisor should be 
professional, not personal. The accomplishment of purposes, 
rather than personal feelings, likes, and dislikes, should be 
the important factor. As in all cooperative work, each one 
must make allowances for individual peculiarities, temporary 
aberrations, etc. Misunderstandings are very common. 
The best results are obtained when one can believe in the 
other fellow's good intentions and when one helps the other 
fellow to do his best. 

6. Ability to accept and make use of criticism is important in 
any cooperative relationship. 

7. Tact is a desirable trait, but frankness is even more important 
between people who sincerely wish to accomplish something 
by working together. 

8. Jealousy is a deep-seated instinct but the "good sport" 
does not allow himself to show it. He makes a point of 
showing interest in the success of a person who has received 
a coveted promotion and gives as much help as he can. He 
is scrupulously careful not to say anything derogatory about 
the other person. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 169. — A supervisor, when visiting a classroom, 
usually spends his time in observing the work, seldom says any- 
thing, sometimes makes notes. The teacher has the feeling 
that he is making unfavorable comments, knows that she is 
getting no help, but does nothing about it. 

Problem 170. — A supervisor sometimes criticizes a lesson, 
pointing out defects of which the teacher is aware. She feels 



RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 249 

that he has formed a false impression of her ability. He never 
happens in when she is doing her best work. 

Problem 171. — A supervisor always commends a teacher 
even when the latter knows that the work has not been good, 
she has many nice things to say and merely ventures to suggest 
one or two things that she might care to try. 

Problem 172. — A supervisor disapproves of a teacher's 
methods, explains what he regards as a better one. The teacher 
argues the point, remains unconvinced, and sticks to her own 
plan. 

Problem 173. — A supervisor furnishes exact outlines of the 
work to be done, and insists that teachers follow them closely. 
A teacher complains that she is given no opportunity to exercise 
initiative. She is sure that she could get better results if per- 
mitted to work out her own scheme. 

Problem 174. — A supervisor makes a casual remark which 
hurts the teacher's feelings. The teacher cherishes the injury 
and relates the occurrence to others but says nothing to the 
supervisor. 

Problem 175. — A conference is called to discuss course of 
study outlines. The work taken up contains very little that is 
new to some teachers. They take no part in the conference 
and feel that their time is wasted. 

Problem 176. — The subject of a conference is announced a 
week or two in advance. Only a few take an active part in the 
conference. Some have given no thought to the subject. All 
go away with a feeling of disappointment. 

Problem 177. — Teachers are asked to make suggestions which 
will enable the supervisor to be of as much help as possible. 

Problem 178. — A group of teachers are conversing. One 
maintains that supervisors are the bane of a teacher's life. They 
just mean more meetings and interference with a teacher's own 
work. She thinks it would be better to do away with supervisors, 
says that those who can't get along without supervision ought 



250 RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISORS 

not to be teaching anyway. Another member of the group 
disagrees and attempts to convince the others that supervision 
is important. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter 

XVII. 
Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher, Chapter 

III. 
Wagner, C. A., Common Sense in School Supervision. 



CHAPTER XII 

PROBLEMS OF RELATIONSHIP 
WITH ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

Accepting Criticism; Cooperation with Superin- 
tendent; Assignments to Posts; Contracts 

Problem 179. — A teacher is requested to come to the prin- 
cipal's office. The principal says: " Miss A., I have noticed 
that you are frequently tardy in arriving at the school in the 
morning. The rules require teachers to be in their rooms at 
least fifteen minutes before the opening of school. You are 
expected to comply with that requirement punctiliously. If 
anything which you cannot control prevents your reaching 
school on time, please explain the circumstances as soon as 
possible." The teacher repHes with some heat, " I have not 
been late more than two or three times this year and then only 
a minute or two." The principal turns to a record and gives 
the dates of four cases of tardiness within two weeks. The 
teacher thereupon walks out of the room, pale with anger. 
It is some time before she regains her composure. Later in the 
day she talks to a friend about the occurrence and remarks on 
the meanness of the principal in spying on a teacher. This idea 
impresses itseK on her mind very strongly. She declares that 
the principal has a grudge against her, that there are plenty of 
other teachers who are worse offenders than she and he is as 
sweet as honey to them. In the evening she talks with some 
teachers from another school. They encourage her in her atti- 
tude, sa3ring that things are much more easy going in their 
school. The principal is frequently late himself and the fifteen 
minute rule is a dead letter. They advise her to try to be 
transferred at the first opportunity. 

During the next week or so, the teacher nurses her 
injured pride. She is careful to be punctual but, whenever 

251 



252 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

she meets the principal, she responds to his friendly "good- 
morning" with a curt reply and a frozen countenance. The 
principal does not appear to notice this and she is secretly 
disappointed that he is not more contrite over his rude 
treatment of her. She cannot help feeling that she is 
behaving childishly and lowering herself in his estimation. 

At her next meeting with the group of teachers who had 
suggested that she ask to be transferred to their school, 
the discussion is resumed. One of the teachers says: 
"Mr. A. doesn't bother about petty regulations. He never 
gets to his ojB&ce until the last minute and he generally 
leaves as soon as school is over." To her surprise, our 
teacher finds herself defending her own principal. "He is 
always the first one in the building and often stays until 
six o'clock. If I have occasion to call him up on Saturday 
morning, I almost always find him at his office. It is the 
school joke that he sleeps in the building. One of the 
teachers who got to school at eight o'clock one morning 
found him going about from room to room, in his shirt 
sleeves, looking at thermometers. The janitor was sick 
and he had been attending to the furnace for two hours. 
I think he works too hard but I respect him for putting his 
whole heart into the school. I should not want to work 
for a principal who did not care how things went." 

This involuntary plea as champion of the man who has 
hurt her feeHngs changes the teacher's set of mind and 
opens the way for calmer reflection. She realizes that to 
one who has such a high sense of responsibility as her 
principal manifests and who gives such careful attention 
to details affecting the welfare of the school, such a matter 
as tardiness of teachers would naturally appear a serious 



ACCEPTING CRITICISM 253 

problem. She wonders why he did not call her to account 
more promptly until it occurs to her that perhaps he may 
have dreaded the interview and postponed it until compelled 
by a sense of duty. She recalls her own feehngs and 
behavior with increasing dissatisfaction. Her imputation 
of spying now seems particularly mean. Instead of a 
sneaking effort to ^'get something on" a teacher, his be- 
havior appears, in her new mood, to be more like con- 
scientious devotion to duty — possibly an unpleasant duty. 
She is ashamed of her instinctive effort to excuse herself 
by minimizing the amount of her tardiness and suggesting 
that worse offenders have escaped rebuke. 

In a mood that is a combination of self -depreciation and 
exaltation, she goes to the principal and says: *'Mr. B., 
I have come to apologize for acting like a baby. I got what 
I deserved and I ought to have thanked you for it. I do 
thank you now and I want you to know that you can count 
on my help in your work for the school." 

The principal beams as he grasps her hand. "That's 
the most encouraging thing," he declares, "that has hap- 
pened to me in a long time. But don't be too hard on 
yourself," he adds. "The ability to accept criticism is a 
rare accomplishment among people of spirit. Many 
people become hardened to it or learn to accept it silently 
through fear of consequences, but among self-respecting 
men and women such as make up the teaching corps of the 
average school, there seem to be few who have learned to 
accept criticism without an emotional reaction which up- 
sets their judgment. 

The reason why yoig: statement gives me so much pleas- 
tire, — apart from your renewal of cordiaUty which I have 



254 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

missed and your offer of cooperation which warms my heart 
— is that it restores my faith in the possibiHty of a relation- 
ship between teachers and administrative officers which 
would increase school efficiency to a marked degree. I 
have discussed the matter with principals very often and 
the belief is almost universal among them that one must be 
exceedingly careful how one criticizes a teacher. Many 
and many a time I have refrained from calHng a teacher's 
attention to some delinquency or opportunity for improve- 
ment, for fear that wounded sensibilities would enter the 
situation and the result would be loss instead of gain. 
Many principals, under the influence of this belief, have 
formed the habit of giving unmerited praise and refrain- 
ing altogether from adverse criticism. Others discuss 
individual shortcomings in general terms at teachers' 
meetings, in the hope that the deHnquents will take the 
admonition to heart, without regarding it as a personal 
rebuke. If teachers and principals could learn to talk to 
each other, man to man, pointing out faults and needed 
improvements without personal resentment but solely in a 
spirit of service to the school, we could go ahead with a 
rush:'' 

"I have heard teachers discuss the same thing," the 
teacher interposes. "I have heard them laugh about 
principals who are always playing PoUyanna, and declare 
that they would rather have a man come down hard once 
in a while." 

"I have heard such remarks too," the principal rejoins, 
"and I know some principals of a very strong or very 
winning personaHty who can talk to a teacher like a 'Dutch 
uncle' without arousing resentment, but it is a very real 



COOPERATION WITH SUPERINTENDENT 255 

problem nevertheless and one which has worried me a 
great deal." 

"Well, you won't have to worry any more about me," 
the teacher remarks as she rises to go. "Hereafter, please 
don't try to break the news gently but tell me the worst 
at once. I'd like to see whether I'm cold-blooded enough 
to hear the truth about myself." She hesitates a moment 
and then says : "I offered to help you and, if you are willing 
to trust me, I should like to begin with this problem which 
worries you. I think I can interest the other teachers in 
the matter and I am hopeful that we can all get together 
on the relationship of man to man." 

Problem 180. — A new superintendent requires teachers to 
make various reports to which they have not been accustomed. 
Some of them find the work tedious and exacting. They com- 
plain about the matter to friends and, in conversations around 
boarding-house tables, make humorous exaggerations of the 
superintendent's worship of statistics. One or two teachers 
who are intimate with members of the board of education give 
similar accounts to these officials. The superintendent gets 
his first intimation of the trouble from a "Letter to the Editor " 
of the local paper. He calls a meeting of the teachers, explains 
the purpose of the reports, points out the injury to the schools 
which a general agitation is causing, and invites teachers who 
have any suggestions for improvement to bring them to him. 

The superintendent, whose previous experience as prin- 
cipal of a single school with comparatively few teachers has 
led him to expect a prompt response to his appeal, is sur- 
prised and disappointed when a week passes with no attempt 
on the part of teachers to discuss the matter with him. The 
newspapers foster the controversy by printing every day 
editorials and letters in which the absurdity of new-fangled 
notions and the sufferings of oppressed teachers are set 



256 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

forth with journalistic abandon. The superintendent learns 
that teachers are becoming more and more agitated and 
that a petition is in circulation among the townspeople, 
urging the board of education to suppress the burdensome 
requirements. He decides to ask a few of the most thought- 
ful teachers to discuss the probleni with him. 

He opens the conference by saying: ^'This situation 
puzzles me. The reports which I have called for are in 
accordance with recommendations made by men who have 
made very careful study of school administration. I have 
been hampered in my effort to learn the exact condition 
of the schools by lack of such data for previous years. Why 
should teachers oppose an effort to improve the schools? 
If they think I am wrong in my estimate of the value of the 
facts which I have asked for, why do they not come and 
discuss the matter?" 

One of the teachers replies : ''They do not come to you 
because they have no idea that they could convince you 
that you are wrong. They are rather afraid of you and 
have no confidence in their ability to defeat you in an 
argument. In spite of your invitation, they probably 
think that you would resent interference by a teacher." 
Another of the group says: ''But teachers are not inten- 
tionally opposing the improvement of the schools. They 
think that they are being overburdened in order that 
you may pile up statistics which nobody will ever look at. 
The teachers in one school worked until after six trying to 
make their report check and one of them got so nervous that 
she was sick for several days afterwards. Then when the 
report was handed in, it was full of mistakes and had to be 
done over. Naturally the teachers were excited and com- 



COOPERATION WITH SUPERINTENDENT 257 

plained bitterly." Another adds: "The trouble has been 
fostered by people outside the schools. They seem to 
delight in a row and they have circulated stories that 
teachers never expected to be repeated." 

"But why didn't they come to me when they had trouble 
with the report? I could have straightened out the diffi- 
culty in a few minutes. Why did they make it boarding- 
house gossip ? " "Human nature, I guess," one of the older 
teachers replies. "We have had enough trouble from 
gossip in years past to know better by this time, but there 
seems to be an overpowering instinct to tell the world about 
one's troubles when somebody else can be blamed for them." 

"Well," says the superintendent, "I understand the 
situation much better now. The question is, *How are we 
to get out of it ? ' " Several suggestions are offered, such as 
simplifying the reports, holding a mass meeting of the 
teachers, and leaving it to the board of education to render 
a decision. One of the teachers says: "I think that we 
ought to be able to work out this problem ourselves. Mr. C. 
is working for the interest of the schools. We teachers 
want the same result, however much we may differ in regard 
to method. If we can find some way of attacking the diffi- 
culty in a spirit of cooperation, we ought to be able to settle 
it without a bitter controversy and a decision which would 
mean defeat for one side." 

After more discussion, it is decided to have a representa- 
tive committee by the election of delegates from each school 
to meet with the superintendent and principals. The 
teachers undertake to get support for the plan of solving 
the problem by cooperation. 

At the first meeting of the representative committee, the 

E. T. PROB. — 17 



258 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

superintendent says : *' As I analyze the situation, we shall 
do well to arrange our discussion in some such way as this : 

1. Relation of teachers and superintendent in dealing 
with any administrative problem which involves possible 
misunderstanding or serious difference of opinion. 

2. Relation of the school staff to public opinion in matters 
of school procedure. 

3. Method of solving problems due to difference of 
opinion in regard to administrative requirements. 

4. The specific problem of the new reports." 

The members of the committee are not quite sure what 
the superintendent has up his sleeve, but as nobody has any 
better plan to propose, no objection is raised to his program. 
The discussion is at times discursive and necessitates two 
meetings. Some of the teachers are unwilHng to allow their 
minds to wander from the determination that the reports 
must go, but the superintendent keeps bringing the argu- 
ment back to the points at issue and consistently keeps to 
the fore the purpose of furthering the interests of the 
schools. By the end of the second session, the follow- 
ing conclusions have been generally accepted. 

I. School problems should be dealt with in a spirit of 
cooperation. Everyone concerned should try to devote 
himself to the general welfare of the schools and subor- 
dinate personal convictions and personal comfort to this 
aim. The superintendent has the principal responsibility 
in administering the schools, and teachers should cooperate 
with him in making a fair test of plans which he considers 
important. On the other hand, he should be sympathetic 
with teachers' difficulties, try to see that their duties are 
not unnecessarily burdensome, take pains to have them 



COOPERATION WITH SUPERINTENDENT 259 

understand the purpose of his requirements, and welcome 
their criticisms, when made in a spirit of helpfulness. 

2. Every member of the school staff should avoid as far 
as possible, action which may give the impression that there 
is lack of harmony within the schools. Every effort should 
be made to settle grievances by face-to-face discussion of 
those directly concerned. Gossip should be strictly taboo. 
A teacher should never ^'go over the head" of the superin- 
tendent or principal until an effort has been made to settle 
the matter directly. If such effort proves futile and the 
teacher believes that the welfare of the schools is seriously 
involved, he should ask to have the matter referred to the 
board of education. If this should be refused, it would be 
his duty to go to the board himself. 

3. Problems of administrative procedure should be 
settled, as far as possible, on an impersonal basis by dis- 
cussion or by experiment with unprejudiced study of results. 
Everyone should strive to maintain an open mind and aid 
in making the test a fair one, until the results are obtained. 

4. The members of the representative committee will 
undertake to secure cooperation in giving a fair trial of the 
new reports. The superintendent will explain their purpose 
carefully. He will work out with the principals a method 
of preparing them which will economize time and effort 
as far as possible. At the end of the year he will explain 
just what use he has made of them and show by concrete 
illustrations what benefit the schools have derived. If it 
is not clearly evident that the results have justified the 
cost, he will either abandon the plan or discuss the matter 
with this committee or a similar one. Inasmuch as the 
present controversy has been widely advertised by discus- 



26o ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

sion and press comment, it will be advisable to announce 
publicly, after the teachers have given their consent, that 
it has been agreed among the members of the teaching staff 
to suspend judgment until the matter has been subjected 
to a careful test. 

Problem 181. — At the end of the school year, six teachers 
withdraw from one of the schools of a city system. In another 
school all the teachers accept reappointment. The superin- 
tendent feels that it will be better to distribute the new teachers 
between the two schools rather than to have so many beginners 
in the same building. He therefore proposes to transfer two 
experienced teachers from the second school to the first. These 
teachers have been in the school for several years, are attached 
to the principal, and are very friendly with the other teachers. 
Neither of them is wiUing to go. The superintendent says: 
** Please think it over. I do not wish to transfer you against 
your will and I should not ask you to go if I did not think it 
important for the good of the schools. If you have any better 
plan to suggest I should be glad to have your advice." 

The two teachers discuss the matter with each other and 
with other teachers in the school. All agree that the 
request is unreasonable. One says : ''Don't let him wheedle 
you into agreeing to the scheme. If you consent, he will 
be transferring teachers right and left. I came here to 
teach in this school and he has no right to make me teach 
anywhere else." The following letter is constructed with 
the collaboration of the two self-styled "goats" and sev- 
eral of their colleagues : 

Dear Mr. Patterson : 

We have considered your plan as you requested and feel 
exactly as we did when you first suggested it. We feel that this 
is our school. All of our friends are here. We know the pupils 
and the parents. To start all over in another school would be 
a waste. It would take a long time to get used to it, and as 



ASSIGNMENTS TO POSTS 261 

we should be unhappy we could not help doing poorer work. 
Is it not very important that teachers should be happy in their 
work? 

If it is necessary to transfer anybody, we think that two of 
the newer teachers should be the ones to go, rather than those 
who have been here as long as we have. It would not be so 
hard for them to change as for us who have grown into the school. 
At all events we feel that the teachers of long service should 
have first consideration. 

For all these reasons we must respectfully decHne to agree 
to the proposed plan in so far as it concerns us. 

Yours very truly, 

Helen Simpson 
Margaret Watkins 

Each teacher receives next day a note from the superin- 
tendent thanking her for her frank' statement and saying 
that he will not press the matter. He requests her to 
attend a conference of several of the most experienced 
teachers to consider the whole question of transfers. 

The superintendent explains the situation to the assem- 
bled group and says : "I have always believed that, for the 
highest efficiency, we should move teachers about more or 
less in order to have the strongest people in the most diffi- 
cult positions. For that reason, we never make a contract 
with a teacher for a specific post. He is engaged as a mem- 
ber of our staff and theoretically it is expected that he will 
be assigned to the place where he is most needed. I say 
* theoretically' because in practice we have made very few 
shifts except when teachers themselves have sought to be 
transferred. I have found it ahnost impossible to get 
teachers to go willingly to another school or even to another 
grade where I thought that they were more needed. When 
I suggest such a thing, some argue and some weep but 



262 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

hardly anyone is willing. I might order the changes, 
of course. The board of education gives me that right, 
but I seldom exercise it because much, if not all, of the 
benefit would be lost if teachers were forced to move 
against their will. Now I want you as professional teach- 
ers to help me find the right solution. Will you forget, 
for the time being, your interest in individual schools 
and regard yourselves as members of a council of profes- 
sional educators, concerned with the welfare of this school 
system as a whole ? I would like to have you consider this 
question: 'If teachers' feelings did not enter into the 
matter, would it make for efficiency to assign a particu- 
larly strong teacher to a particularly difficult post, putting 
in her place a teacher who could handle the easier job fairly 
weU?'" 

The teachers suspect a trap and hesitate to say "Yes." 
One says : " One class might lose as much as the other one 
gained." "Would that be so if each teacher did his best? 
The teacher of less abiHty would do better with the easier 
class than with the more difficult one, would he not ? " The 
teacher assents to this. "How about the particularly 
strong teacher? Would he necessarily do poorer work 
with the hard class?" "Not if he took it as a challenge 
to his ability," someone says. "He would probably exert 
himseK to the full, and do even better work than in the 
position which did not tax his full strength." 

"Do you think that he would get any pleasure in the 
new position?" the superintendent asks. "Certainly he 
would if he went at the job as we have assumed. There 
is no greater pleasure than mastering something that taxes 
all one's powers." 



ASSIGNMENTS TO POSTS 263 

"Will you agree, then, that if teachers should feel real 
zest in undertaking a new assignment, given them because 
of the superintendent's confidence in their special abilities, 
it would be a real advantage to the school system to make 
occasional transfers?" ''Yes," answers one, "but as you 
suggested at first, it is all theoretical. Teachers don't 
feel that way. They are human and they don't consider it 
fair to give a class that some beginner has spoiled to a good 
teacher just because, by working her head off, she can 
straighten it out. It would be different if teachers were 
paid according to their services." 

"That is a good point," the superintendent returns. "I 
am heartily in sympathy with the idea of payment according 
to merit and I hope that we shall have it one of these days, 
but we all know that, until we can determine merit more 
exactly, the attempt would be disastrous, as it has been in 
so many places where it has been tried. For the present a 
teacher who takes a hard job will have to find his satisfaction 
in the consciousness of success and of worthy service." 

One of the teachers breaks into the discussion at this 
point. "I do not believe," she says, "that teachers are 
really so dominated by self-interest as their attitude toward 
transfers might indicate. Many teachers are devoted to 
their schools and make all sorts of sacrifices for them. They 
dislike the thought of giving up an attractive position for 
one which looks disagreeable, but if they once caught the 
idea of responsibihty for the success of the school system 
as a higher ideal than loyalty to a single school, I think that 
most of them would feel honored to be given a difi&cult 
problem." 

"I think so too," the superintendent says, "and now let 



264 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

US see whether we can make a beginning. I have called 
you teachers together because you are the very ones upon 
whom we must depend if we are to act as a real team. You 
are all skillful teachers, the backbone of our system. If 
you enter into the plan in the way that we have suggested 
as a possibihty there will be no difficulty in making it a 
tradition in our schools. If any of you are willing to volun- 
teer, we shall soon have a chance to set the scheme in 
motion." 

*'You may count on me," one says instantly. Several 
others follow suit. The two who had just declined transfer 
whisper together and, after the others have gone, announce 
that they have changed their minds. "We're going to be 
good soldiers," one remarks. "We would have resisted 
the draft, but volunteering is another matter." 

Problem 182. — In April a teacher accepts reappointment for 
the next school year. Late in July he hears of a vacancy in 
another school system which pays higher salaries. He applies 
for it and is offered the position. He then writes to the super- 
intendent asking to be released. The latter replies that he 
cannot release the teacher from his engagement without injury 
to the schools. The teacher considers the alternatives of re- 
jecting the new position or sending in his resignation. 

The teacher explains his dilemma to a friend who is also 
a teacher. The latter congratulates him heartily on his 
new appointment. He says: "They won't hold you to 
your contract. They may try to bluff you, but if you simply 
send in your resignation, they can do nothing but accept 
it. Teachers are constantly doing the same thing. Your 
superintendent has no right to prevent your getting ahead. 
This is your chance. If I had it, I should not hesitate a 



CONTRACTS 265 

This conversation relieves the mind of our teacher tem- 
porarily but he cannot keep his thoughts from running over 
and over the problem. He finds himself constantly arguing 
in defense of his intention to resign. "It is unfair," he 
contends, "to bind a teacher for a whole year and not per- 
mit him to try for an attractive vacancy. Good positions 
do not become available at any particular time. A man 
has got to be ready to seize an opportunity whenever it 
comes, if he ever wants to get ahead. The superintendent 
can get another teacher if he tries hard enough. He was 
mighty mean to refuse to release me." All the time the 
thought is in the teacher's consciousness of what the other 
superintendent will think of him if he writes that he cannot 
accept the appointment. When the offer was made, he 
was so delighted at the prospect of promotion that he did 
not lay much stress on his obligation to his present employ- 
ers and, assuming that he would be released, accepted at 
once. Now, if he goes back on his new agreement, he will 
never be given another opportunity in that school system. 

After several hours of uneasy reflection, during which 
his wife has chided him several times for not Hstening when 
she spoke to him and complained that he is getting unbear- 
ably irritable, he mutters: "I'll settle this thing now and 
forget it." He goes to the telegraph office and fills out a 
blank : "Sorry notice so late. Must insist you accept my 
resignation." 

"There! That's done," he remarks as he leaves the 
office, but in spite of his determination, he is unable to forget 
the matter. He keeps going over and over imaginary 
interviews with the superintendent and pictures the latter 
reporting the case to the board of education. He fears 



266 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

that his reputation in the town where he has been for 
several years will be injured and wonders whether the facts 
will come out in the paper and whether it will make any 
difference in the friendships which he and his wife have 
made. He lies awake half the night and rises unrefreshed. 

As he glances over the morning paper during breakfast, 
his eye falls on an account of a strike in one of the great 
industries. Prominence is given to the fact that the men 
have repudiated a wage agreement, apparently taking 
advantage of a favorable opportunity to enforce new 
demands instead of waiting until the expiration of the 
agreement when they might be in a less strategic position. 
He has frequently argued that the weak spot in organized 
labor is its irresponsibility, that when men fail to Hve up 
to their agreements, they alienate pubHc sympathy and 
injure their cause. It comes over him with a shock that 
breaking of contracts by teachers would, in the same way, 
damage the standing of the teaching profession. He recalls 
that, in a recent conversation about profiteering in which 
examples of selfishness have been cited in various professions 
as well as in business, he has expatiated on the unselfishness 
of teachers as a class. He decides to take a long walk and 
think out his problem calmly. 

He admits first that he has so set his heart upon taking 
the new position that he has not fairly considered possible 
arguments on the other side. He states a few of them : 

I. Appointments are made early when strong teachers 
are available. The superintendent who has to begin a 
canvass of candidates in July or August is likely to find 
more ''lame ducks" than capable teachers who are free 
to accept engagement. 



CONTRACTS 267 

2. Withdrawal of a teacher late in the season is almost 
sure to cause a loss to the pupils who would be in his classes 
and therefore a loss to the public for whose service he was 
engaged. 

3. Breaking of a contract by a teacher injures the stand- 
ing of the profession as well as his own reputation. 

4. It is hardly fair to the superintendent, who has worked 
all the spring to fill his staff, to send him a resignation when 
he has just left the city for a few weeks* rest. 

The teacher is almost ready to conclude that he has made 
a mistake in sending that telegram, but again the thought 
occurs to him that if no teachers could make a change after 
signing an agreement in the early spring, a person's chance 
for advancement in the profession would be seriously cur- 
tailed. He feels that the growing custom of binding 
teachers for more than a year in advance and holding 
rigidly to the agreement is not fair to the teachers nor 
favorable to the public interest, if this is thought of in 
terms of the state or nation. 

His obligation to the second superintendent is easily 
interpreted in the teacher's present state of mind. The 
superintendent is entitled to an explanation and an apology, 
but the previous agreement takes precedence. The appHca- 
tion should never have been made, without the approval of 
those with whom he had already contracted. 

On reaching this stage in his reflections, the teacher's 
face bears a different expression. His mind is at rest and 
he finishes his walk with an elastic step. His first act is to 
send another telegram : "Disregard my wire of yesterday. 
Will stick. Letter follows. " On reaching home he immedi- 
ately goes to his desk and produces the following letter : 



26S ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

Dear Mr. J : 

If you have received my second telegram, you probably 
have a pretty good idea of the mental struggle that I have been 
going through during the past twenty-four hours. I wanted 
that position so badly that I made black seem white, or at least 
a very light gray. I think that I have a straight view of the 
matter now, and I am prepared to live up to my contract since 
you feel that you cannot release me. I should not have signed 
a contract for next year without conditions, unless I was prepared 
to abide by it fully. I do not think that I shall sign such a rigid 
contract again. As I feel now, I believe that I shall have enough 
confidence in myself to take a risk of having to accept a less 
satisfactory position, for the sake of being free to try for a better 
one. I mean to begin early to look for what I want and I hope 
that I shall be able to find it before the reappointments are made. 
If not, I shall have to make my decision to accept or refuse re- 
appointment, in accordance with the terms of the contract. 

However, I hope that before that time comes you will in- 
duce the board to make a slight change in the form of contract. 
It seems to me that at present many boards of education are 
going too far in the attempt to get the best for their own schools. 
They are right in looking out for the interest of the children in 
their towns but they ought, I think, to consider education of 
children as a state, even a national problem. I propose that 
this clause be inserted in the contract : 'Provided that the said 
John Doe shall have the right to explain to the said board any 
offer of another position which he may receive without solicita- 
tion on his part or on the part of agents employed by him or to 
ask permission to apply for another position which appears to 
offer greater opportunities for service, and provided that said 
board shall release said John Doe from this contract in order 
that he may accept or apply for such position whenever, in the 
judgment of the board, the said John Doe would be able to 
render more important service to the state or the nation in the 
position sought than in the one which he herewith contracts 
to fulfiU.' 

Yours sincerely, 

Edward Harris 



TEACHER AND SUPERINTENDENT 269 

The teacher shows the letter to his wife and has the 
satisfaction of knowing that she is proud of him. A few 
days later, he receives this message from the superintendent : 
^* Bully for you. Will back suggestion. Promotion will 
come soon." 

Problem 183. — A superintendent is very exacting. He issues 
directions frequently and expects teachers to follow them. One 
of the teachers feels that a plan for the grading of pupils, which 
has just been announced, is unwise. She expresses her views to 
another teacher who has taught a long time in the system. The 
latter says : " Forget it. If you want to stand well with Mr. B., 
just follow the plan. It will do you no good to protest against 
it." The first teacher is confident that the new plan will not 
be an advantage to the schools. She wonders whether there is 
anything which she ought to do about it. 

The teacher puzzles over the question from time to time. 
The orders are to promote every pupil who has already 
repeated the grade, regardless of his standing. She agrees 
that the necessity of a second or third repetition indicates 
that something is wrong, but she cannot believe that merely 
advancing a pupil, who cannot do the work of the lower 
grade, is an adequate solution. With certain individuals 
in mind, she is convinced that the superintendent's plan 
will do more harm than good. 

^'Well, it's not my responsibility," she thinks during one 
of her periods of mental protest. "If Mr. B. does not seek 
or welcome the criticism of teachers upon his plans, he must 
take the whole blame for any harm which may come be- 
cause of them." She gradually accepts the prevailing 
practice of carrying out orders and disclaiming responsibiHty 
for results, but at the same time she finds her enthusiasm 
for work diminishing. "This won't do," she says to her- 



270 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

self presently. '^If I don't do something quickly, I shall 
be a perfect cog. Unless I can get a chance to put my whole 
self into this job, I must find one where I can. It is not 
true that I have no responsibihty for weak spots that I can 
see in our schools. I have always despised people who 
turn away when they see an animal abused. If I allow 
children to be injured without doing my best to stop it, I 
am doing the same thing, only worse. Mr. B. isn't con- 
sciously injuring children. He is sure that he is acting in 
their interest, and that will make it doubly hard to convince 
him, but it is my duty to try." 

She goes to the superintendent and explains as tactfully 
as she can, her doubts about the grading of backward pupils. 
He Hstens to her statement but is evidently not impressed 
by it. He is sure that his plan is an improvement over the 
usual practice and thinks that the teacher is resisting 
progress. Although he feels that she is rather presumptuous 
in questioning a direction from the head of the system who 
has had a long experience in school work, he patiently 
explains the evils of retardation and the stimulating effect 
of advancement upon pupils who have become discouraged. 
The teacher tries to tell him that she too is anxious to remedy 
the evil and is simply dissatisfied with the proposed method, 
but she realizes that she has made a bad impression and that 
further argument is useless. 

On her way home she makes plans for seeking another 
position for the following year, but before she actually 
takes any steps in that direction, her attention is turned to a 
more promising alternative. She finds in an educational 
magazine an article on mental tests and their use in modify- 
ing the education of backward children. This captures 



TEACHER AND SUPERINTENDENT 271 

her interest and, when she learns that courses in mental 
measurement are to be offered in the summer school of 
one of the universities, she promptly makes arrangements 
to attend. As she reads more articles on the subject and 
learns that some progress has already been made in adapting 
work to the abilities of deficient pupils, it occurs to her that 
the outcome of her interview with the superintendent was 
partly her own fault. She had limited herself to objections 
to his plan, since she had no constructive remedy to offer. 
If she could show him how retarded pupils might be able 
to progress without merely moving them into a higher 
grade, he might adopt the suggestion. 

In the fall, she tells him about her summer courses and 
offers to loan him some of her books if he would care to 
look them over. She takes the first opportunity to discuss 
the books with him and, as she finds him interested, she 
asks if he would like to have her test some of the pupils. 
He assents and observes the first few tests carefully. She 
shows him the results from time to time. One of the pupils 
who was promoted to fifth grade in accordance with the 
superintendent's directions is found to have a mental age 
corresponding to the average age for second grade and 
nearly all of those who have been much retarded are men- 
tally below the grades in which they have been placed. 

A few weeks before the end of the term, the superintendent 
calls the teacher to his office and explains that he has just 
secured the consent of the board of education to estabHsh a 
special class for mental defectives and wishes her to take 
charge of it. 



272 administrative officers 

Principles in Regard to Relationship 
WITH Administrative Officers 

1. The function of the administrative officer is to " manage " : 
to make plans, to give directions, to anticipate and adjust 
difficulties, to lead, in order that the school or the school sys- 
tem may carry out its purpose efficiently. 

2. In a one-room school, the teacher is also the manager to a 
large extent. In a larger system, involving many people, it 
is more economical and more effective to have a special 
manager. 

5. The relationship of administrative officer and teacher in 
a school system should be not that of autocratic direction 
and obedience, but cooperation in carrying out a common 
purpose. The functions of the two are different, but the 
purpose should be the same. 

4. The relationship should be professional, not personal. De- 
votion to the purpose of the school, subordination of personal 
convenience and personal f eehngs to the welfare of the school, 
and frankness in deahng with misunderstandings or differ- 
ences of opinion are necessary to an effective cooperation. 

5. Administrative officers, like teachers, are human. They 
have their pecuKarities, weaknesses, and prejudices. They 
are usually well meaning. Like other people, they usually 
respond to friendliness, appreciation, and willingness to coop- 
erate. Suspicion, indifference, opposition, or unwillingness to 
cooperate on the part of their associates are likely to make 
them react in a similar manner. Although an administrator 
should be tactful, sympathetic, and just, the teacher who is 
truly professional will not dwell upon his shortcomings in 
these directions, but will accept his pecuHarities as a part of 
her problem and strive to '^ allow for them " in order to 
accompHsh her purpose. 

6. For the best results there must be a sympathetic under- 
standing of each other's work. A teacher must not expect 
favors nor must the administrative officer be blind to the 
conditions which affect the teacher's work. 

7. The teacher should accept responsibility for helping to make 
administration effective. The administrative officer should 
welcome suggestions and criticisms from the teacher. 



ADMESnSTEATIVE OFFICERS 273 

8. A teacher who is truly professional will be loyal to the system 
in which he works. He will not let grudges against superiors 
interfere with his best effort for the success of the system. 
He will not participate in gossip. He will not " go over the 
head" of his principal or superintendent by appealing to 
members of the board of education or influential citizens, 
but will take any criticisms which he has to make straight 
to the person directly concerned. He will be careful to do 
nothing which will lower the " morale " of the schools. 

9. A teacher should cultivate the ability to accept criticism or 
a merited rebuke without suUenness or rancor. 

10. In a cooperative enterprise one should try to suppress preju- 
dices. Don't form the habit of looking for flaws in plans 
proposed by others. It is better to look first for the pos- 
sible good features. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 184. — A teacher has some difficulty in controlling 
her class, but fears to make it known to the principal. She 
permits some rather flagrant misbehavior in order to avoid 
sending pupils to the principal. 

Problem 185. — A teacher sends pupils to the principal's office 
very frequently — complains that the principal does not support 
her, that he allows pupils to return to her class without punish- 
ing them. 

Problem 186. — A teacher, becoming exasperated with the 
persistent misbehavior of a boy, sends him from the room and 
sends a note to the principal that she will not tolerate him in 
her classroom again. The principal says that she has no au- 
thority to exclude a pupil from the class. 

Problem 187. — A teacher is a candidate for promotion, but the 
superintendent recommends another. She regards him as her 
enemy and feels satisfaction in opposing his plans whenever an 
opportunity is presented. 

Problem 188. — A teacher feels that the superintendent has 
formed an unfavorable impression of her from one or two slight 
occurrences. She is sure that he is prejudiced against her. 

E. T. PROB. — 18 



274 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 

Problem 189. — A teacher learns that a new policy is to be 
introduced which seems to her to trespass upon teachers' rights. 
She talks with other teachers about it and issues a call for an 
indignation meeting at which a petition is drawn up urging the 
board of education to withdraw the plan. 

Problem 190. — The principal announces some new regulations 
which seem arbitrary and unwise to one of the teachers who has 
been in the school a long time. These edicts of successive 
principals take a good deal of the joy out of her life as a teacher. 

Problem 191. — A principal assigns an especially hard class 
to a teacher, because he has confidence in her ability and does 
not wish to trust the work to a weaker teacher to whom the 
class would naturally belong. He does not explain his reason 
as he does not wish to disparage one teacher to another. The 
teacher feels that it is quite unfair and an example of favoritism. 

Problem 192. — A teacher is annoyed by many interruptions 
in the form of notes or telephone calls or visits by the principal 
in connection with administrative details. 

Problem 193. — A principal disagrees with a teacher's judg- 
ment in regard to certain promotions and reverses her decision. 
She is resentful and goes to the superintendent to complain. 

Problem 194. — At a meeting of teachers, the topic for dis- 
cussion is : " Should Teachers Have a Share in the Administra- 
tion of a School? " One teacher declares that every regulation 
and every new plan should be submitted to the approval of the 
teachers. Another says that administrative problems are not 
part of a teacher's function. No agreement is reached, but at 
the close of the meeting the chairman expresses the opinion 
that every teacher ought to think the question out and reach a 
definite conviction. 

Problem 195. — The superintendent asks a teacher to offer 
suggestions for the improvement of the schools. 

Problem 196. — A principal is not reappointed. He has a 
winning personality, is very friendly with the teachers, is not 



ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS 275 

at all exacting and seldom shows any dissatisfaction with the 
work of a teacher. The teachers realize that he is not a very- 
strong character nor a very efficient leader, but they Hke him 
and are highly indignant at what they regard as unjust treatment. 
They feel that he is being persecuted by the superintendent. 

Problem 197. — In her first year in a school system, a teacher 
has not done strong work. She has had some difficulties in 
discipline and has not made much effort to follow the few sugges- 
tions which the principal and superintendent have given her. 
Nevertheless, she has not been conscious of any very serious 
shortcomings on her own part. She has been inclined to ascribe 
her difficulties to the previous training of the class and poor 
management by her superior officers. Toward the end of the 
year the superintendent tells her that her work has not been 
strong enough to warrant reappointment. She expresses great 
surprise and wants to know what charges he has to make against 
her. The superintendent replies that he is not a prosecutor and 
is making no charges. He points out one or two weaknesses 
but seems unable to recall many specific cases in which her work 
has been poor. He is evidently embarrassed and tries to soften 
the blow, but it is clear that he has made up his mind not to 
reappoint her. He says that he would like to please her, but he 
is responsible for the schools and cannot conscientiously retain 
a teacher whose work has not been strong. She says that he 
should have warned her. She feels that the loss of her position 
will be a disgrace and will prevent her getting another good 
place. She thinks that it is very unfair. After a while she 
makes up her mind to try to get a reappointment. 

Problem 198. — A high school teacher is asked by the principal 
to coach a basket ball team. He is unwilling to do it unless he 
is given extra pay for this service. He thinks that some teachers 
are asked to do more than others. 

Problem 199. — A teacher asks to be excused an hour or two 
before the close of school for a week's vacation, in order that she 
may take a train which will enable her to reach home at a con- 
venient time. The superintendent refuses the request on the 
ground that there are many teachers who live at a considerable 



276 ADMINISTRA.TIVE OFFICERS 

distance and it would be impracticable to allow all of them to 
go early. He thinks a special effort should be made to have 
pupils realize that vacation does not begin until school closes. 
She thinks the superintendent is pretty mean, and would like 
to make him realize how small he is. 



REFERENCES 

Bobbitt, F., The Curriculum, Chapter IX. 

Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, pages 281-284. 

Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher. 



CHAPTER XIII 

PROBLEMS OF RELATIONSHIP 
WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

Jealousy and Prejudice; Teamwork; Mutual 
Help; Exchange of Experiences 

Problem 200. — A teacher has worked very hard to develop 
self-reliance in her pupils. She has found it possible to give 
them a good deal of freedom. She feels that they have made a 
good start but that they need much further encouragement. 
At the beginning of the new school year she seeks an 
interview with the teacher who is to receive her former class, 
in order to tell her about the children and make some sugges- 
tions. She expresses a desire to visit the class occasionally. 
The other teacher is not cordial, intimates that she does not need 
advice as to the handling of a class, and gives the impression 
that she would resent any visitation. A week or two later, 
she remarks to other teachers that the class came to her in a 
terrible state, but she is " getting the nonsense out of them." 
The first teacher feels that her efforts have been wasted. 

For a few days, the teacher is depressed and falls into a 
mental attitude which is accurately expressed by her half 
disconsolate and half petulant exclamation: ^'What's the 
use ! " Her ideas and habits have become so changed by 
her work of the preceding year that, in spite of herself, she 
soon becomes absorbed in the growth of her new pupils, 
but her thoughts turn frequently to the impossibility of 
making a permanent impression on the characters of children 
by a single year's effort which is followed by treatment 
directed by totally different ideals. She decides to dis- 
cuss the problem with the principal. 

27/ 



278 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

"Mr. S.," she says, "you seemed interested in the experi- 
ment which I tried out with my last year's class." "Yes," 
he answers, "I was more than interested. I was delighted 
with the children's progress. I am convinced that you are 
on the right track and I want you to go right ahead on the 
same line this year." "What's the use ? " she asks. "That 
track comes to a dead-end; it doesn't get you anywhere." 
Then she tells him about the wet blanket which has been 
spread over her enthusiasm by her next-door neighbor. 

The principal reflects upon this difficulty. He had 
watched the novel method with keen interest, but had not 
attempted to formulate a plan for extending it to other 
grades. Suddenly, he asks : "How would you like to keep 
your present class for several years? That would enable 
you to carry the children to a point where they might be 
able to hold their own without much encouragement." 
The teacher is not quite sure. "I think I should like that," 
she answers. "It would be fascinating to watch the growth 
of the youngsters from year to year." After a pause she 
adds: "But that wouldn't be a complete solution, would 
it? After all, I should be influencing only one group of 
children. What about the others?" 

"It is a big problem," the principal replies. "We can 
hardly expect to solve it all at once. I think the most 
hopeful plan will be for you to work out your method as an 
experiment and demonstration. I am hopeful that the 
other teachers will gradually become interested in it and, 
in time, we shall have the whole school working as a unit." 

At the next teachers' meeting, the principal gives a little 
talk. "I have been impressed recently," he says, "with 
the importance of better teamwork in our job of educating 



TEAMWORK 279 

children. In our school, as in most schools, we have thought 
of the institution as an aggregation of more or less independ- 
ent grades. As children pass through them they are sub- 
jected to different, sometimes sharply contrasted, pefsonah- 
ties, methods, and ideals. If we think of our work chiefly 
as imparting subject matter and training in processes like 
reading and writing, this view of the school is natural 
enough. All we have to do is to adopt a course of study, 
with appropriate material for each grade, and have it taught 
in the way that each teacher can use best. But if we think 
of education as guiding the development of individual chil- 
dren, if we concern ourselves chiefly with character, then 
the personaHty and ideals of the teacher count for more 
than subject matter. We must have common ideals and 
work together as a team, making the development of ideals, 
social qualities, and habits of work a continuous growth. 

We need to be more interested in each other's work. 
Each teacher ought to know what is going on in the grade 
below her own and to follow with interest the progress of 
pupils after they have passed through her hands. Teachers 
often hesitate to visit other classrooms. They fear that 
they will not be welcome, that their motives will be mis- 
understood. If there is any such feeling in this school, we 
must try to overcome it. Let us take the education of all 
our boys and girls as a problem which concerns us all. 
Let us encourage each other and help each other by sugges- 
tion and constructive criticism. 

Now we are about to undertake an experiment which 
will help us, I think, to work out practical methods of 
cultivating the character elements in our pupils. It will 
give us a good opportunity to put into practice the team- 



28o RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

work idea which I have been emphasizing. You all know 
about the scheme which Miss A. tried last year. It was 
quite different from the usual plan of school work and some 
of us doubted its success. No wonderful results were 
attained. Miss A. would admit, I am sure, that there were 
many shortcomings. But it was an earnest effort for the 
welfare of the children and the results were promising 
enough to warrant a thorough test. Therefore I have 
asked Miss A. to keep her present group of pupils long 
enough to see what can be accompKshed by consistent 
efforts to develop ability to think, to act, and to work 
together, in distinction from ability to recite. The 
experiment can, if it should seem desirable, last several 
years. 

Now for the teamwork. If we stand off and criticize 
adversely, or merely show indifference, the experiment 
will not have the best chance of success and the school will 
get Httle benefit. We are not assuming that it will be a 
success even under the most favorable conditions, but we 
should like to get a clear answer to the question whether 
the method is capable of producing the results aimed at, 
and if it should be successful, we should like to make it 
available for all teachers who desire to use it. Miss A. 
will keep us informed of the progress of the experiment and 
we shall frequently discuss in teachers' meeting the diffi- 
culties that arise. I will arrange to relieve occasionally 
any teacher who desires to visit Miss A.'s class. She will 
be glad of your criticism and your help." 

Some of the teachers respond to the principal's advice 
and soon become keenly interested. At the beginning of 
the next term, two or three begin to work on the new plan 



JEALOUSY AND PREJUDICE 28 1 

in their own classes. Gradually the work throughout the 
school feels the influence of the new scheme. The teacher 
who boasted of " taking the nonsense out of Miss A.'s former 
class" sticks to her guns for some time, but the growing 
interest throughout the school has its effect and by the end 
of the second year she takes pride in telling people outside 
the school about "our plan" and about the "wonderful 
spirit of cooperation in our school." 

Problem 201. — The superintendent commends publicly a 
piece of work which he has seen in one class, and asks the teacher 
to give a demonstration. Some of the teachers take no part in 
the conference which follows the demonstration but are very 
critical in conversation afterward. Some of them feel that 
their own work is at least as good as the example shown but is 
not appreciated. Others think that the method demonstrated 
requires a great deal of thought and study by the teacher and, 
if encouraged, will mean increased demands upon everybody. 
They think that teachers ought to oppose such ideal schemes 
and use their influence to keep things " practical." The teacher 
who gave the demonstration asks the superintendent not to 
ask her to do such a thing again, because the intimation that 
her work is better than that of others will affect her relations 
with other teachers. 

The superintendent sends for the teacher and tries to 
persuade her to withdraw her request. "Such demonstra- 
tions as yours," he says, "are more valuable than anything 
else that I know of for improving methods of teaching." 
"Please don't urge me," she pleads. "This one experience 
has affected the cordiaHty of my associates. I don't want 
to be regarded as a stuck-up outsider. I prefer to be one 
of the crowd. I will do my best in my own room but I 
don't want any prominence." "But don't you see," 
he argues, "that the benefit will be limited to your own 
class, when your work might have an influence on hundreds 



282 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

of children?" ''What influence can it have," she retorts, 
"if the other teachers are prejudiced against it? They 
might even be deterred from using a good method if it 
came to be spoken of as my method." "I think you are 
exaggerating the narrow attitude of a few teachers," he 
protests. ''Several teachers have told me how much they 
enjoyed your lesson. The total effect was good, I am sure, 
in spite of the unpleasant atmosphere which you have 
noticed. You must not take that too much to heart. 
'A prophet is not without honor except in his own country ' 
— but what a pity it would be if all the prophets should 
hide their light under the proverbial bushel ! " 

"Don't call me a prophet ! " she exclaims in mock horror. 
"Let me blush unseen!" "And waste — Are you willing 
to finish the quotation?" He continues earnestly: "Miss 
D., you are too conscious of yourself in this matter. The 
education of these children is altogether more important 
than your feelings. Try to subordinate these personal 
relations and remember that we are engaged in a great, 
all-important enterprise. Don't hold back. Let us have 
the best that you can give, even though the heathen rage." 

Miss D. has no more excuses to offer but her feelings are 
too much affected to permit any enthusiasm for more 
performances in the limeHght. She consents reluctantly 
to accept a summons for duty when the superintendent 
thinks it necessary but she hopes that he will be considerate. 

A few weeks later, the whole staff is called together to 
listen to an address on "The Work of the Physician" by 
one of the leading local members of the profession. In 
the course of his remarks he speaks of the Medical Associa- 
tion to which most of the physicians of the locality belong. 



EXCHANGE OF EXPERIENCES 283 

At each of the monthly meetings, one member reports on 
some investigation in which he is engaged. He speaks also 
of the value to physicians of clinics at which they can ob- 
serve the work of those who have developed a new method 
or acquired special skill in treating various physical ail- 
ments. He says that this practice of making available to 
the whole profession the progress made by individuals is 
doing wonders in improving medical and surgical practice 
and in developing a professional esprit-de-corps. He 
refers with humorous contempt to the few self-centered 
individuals who, in a spirit of jealousy, disparage the work 
of those who have acquired prominence or decline to make 
their own discoveries known to their fellows. *'I suppose 
you teachers follow a similar plan," he remarks. "If 
not, I commend it to you." 

The address makes a very strong impression. Teachers 
wait after the meeting to talk with the speaker or to discuss 
the lecture in animated groups. The need of something 
corresponding to the Medical Association is emphatically 
declared by several and generally accepted. The physi- 
cian's joke about the dog-in-the-manger with an M.D. 
degree is repeated with gusto and it is intimated that some 
of the breed have been to normal school. Informal con- 
ferences follow and then another general meeting is held 
at which plans are laid for a thorough exchange of experi- 
ences among teachers working in the same field, reports 
of experiments, and educational clinics at which members 
of the staff are to demonstrate promising methods. The 
phrase used by one of the teachers during the discussion 
is adopted as the motto of the new association: "Pooling 
our efforts and stimulating each other." 



284 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

Problem 202. 

A young teacher meets with many difficulties and realizes 
that she is not doing well. She is timid about asking help 
of other teachers, because they seem to be disgusted with the 
evidence of disorder in her class. She overhears one teacher 
remark that if a change is not made soon, the class will be 
ruined. 

This remark takes the heart out of the young teacher. 
She has been struggling to get control of the situation, has 
worked hard on her lesson plans, and tried to gain the co- 
operation of some especially troublesome pupils by talking 
to them after school. Her weakness has been lack of judg- 
ment due to lack of experience. She has been unable to act 
with decision in emergencies because she has not been sure 
what she ought to do. She has made mistakes and sought 
to correct them by going to the other extreme, thus creating 
resentment and lack of respect on the part of the pupils. 
She has worried until she is half sick and has got into 
such a state that she cannot sleep. Under other circum- 
stances the suggestion of failure might have put her on her 
mettle, but in her present condition it prostrates her. 

She is quite unable to face her class the next day and 
spends the day in bed. At the close of school on the day 
of her return, the principal calls her into the office and tells 
her kindly enough that he is very sorry to be obliged to 
suggest such a thing but the welfare of the children demands 
that the demorahzation of the class be corrected promptly. 
He is willing to allow her another week's trial, but unless 
there is distinct improvement by the end of that time, he 
will be obliged to put another teacher in her place. 

The girl leaves the office in a daze. The humiliation of 
loss of position, defeat of her ambition, and realization of 



MUTUAL HELP 285 

the disappointment of her parents combine to form a blow 
which renders her numb. As she starts back to her room, 
one of the older teachers notices her drawn face and unsee- 
ing eyes, and follows her. Once in the room, she puts her 
hand on the girl's shoulder and says: "Don't worry, sister. 
The beginning is the hard part. It will get easier soon." 
This sign of sympathy destroys the last bit of self-control 
and the girl drops into a chair shaking with sobs. 

After a time the older teacher succeeds in getting most of 
the story. "But why didn't you let us know you were 
having trouble?" she asks. "Why didn't you let us help 
you?" 

"You all seemed to know just how to do everything," is 
the reply. "You — not you personally; I thought of 
everybody just as ' the other teachers ' — seemed to 
expect everything to go as you knew it ought to go and to 
be disgusted when I did what seemed to you absurd things. 
You thought I was stupid, I suppose. I'm beginning to 
think so too." 

"Nonsense ! " says the other teacher. "Most of us have 
been through experiences like yours, only with some of us it 
was so long ago that we have forgotten. We are the persons 
who have been stupid. We expect a beginner to get by 
inspiration what we have learned by years of experience ; 
or at least we judge the beginner by our present standards 
without giving adequate help and encouragement. You 
must forgive us for seeming heartless. We are not so in 
reality. We are just thoughtless. Now don't worry about 
that week's trial. Just make up your mind that you are go- 
ing to win. Remember that thousands of teachers have had 
a hard time with discipline at first. Why, one of our very 



286 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

best teachers was given notice, after she had taught a month 
or so, that she would have to leave at the end of the second 
.month. She appealed for a longer trial and made good. 
If she had given up, a splendid teacher would have been 
lost. We shall rely on you to master the situation and we'll 
help you." 

The young teacher naturally takes new courage. She 
redoubles her efforts when she finds that the other teachers 
count her as one of their number and are interested in her 
success. She no longer hesitates to report her difficulties 
and ask for advice. The teachers, on their part, having 
been acquainted with the state of the case, take the new 
recruit under their protection and vie with each other in 
showing httle acts of friendliness, and in coaching her in 
the tricks of the trade. At the end of the week, the prin- 
cipal congratulates her with evident pleasure, saying: ^'If 
you continue to make as much progress as you have done 
this week, you will have a hard time to get away." 

The older teacher, who took part in the crisis, discussing 
the case with others, declares emphatically: ''We've got 
to take an interest in each other's success and back each 
other up." 

Problem 203. — The teachers of a high school are rather con- 
temptuous of the elementary school teachers. As college gradu- 
ates, they have little respect for normal schools. They say that 
the dej&ciencies of the pupils who enter high school show that 
there has been no thoroughness in their preparation. On the 
other hand, the elementary school teachers consider the high 
school group snobbish, absorbed in subject matter, and ignorant 
of teaching methods. An eighth-grade teacher, who is very 
much interested in her pupils and is troubled by the failure of 
many of them in high school, undertakes to improve the situ- 
ation. 



MUTUAL HELP 287 

The teacher begins by visiting the high school. She 
spends most of the day in the classes in which the least 
able of her last year's pupils recite, but she takes pains to 
observe the school as a whole. She attends the assembly 
exercises, visits the gymnasium and library, and takes lunch 
with some of her former pupils in the school lunch room. 
At the close of school she talks with several teachers about 
the work of pupils in whom she is especially interested, and 
spends a few minutes at a meeting of one of the student 
organizations. 

Her visit corrects some of her previous impressions of 
the high school. She finds an orderly institution with stu- 
dents who, on the whole, are attractive, lively, and appar- 
ently happy in their school life. She is impressed with the 
knowledge displayed by some of the teachers and with the 
personalities of others. She gets new light on the diffi- 
culties of the type of pupil who, by help and sympathetic 
guidance, has been enabled to complete the elementary 
school and induced to enter high school. She observes 
such pupils closely during recitation periods. As a rule, 
they never volunteer to recite and, when called upon, make 
a miserable showing. She finds it very hard to keep from 
interrupting to ask a question or make an explanation which 
would enable a pupil to appear to better advantage. It 
is plain that teacher and students consider him hopelessly 
stupid. The plane of instruction is over his head and the 
teacher's method of dealing with him is calculated to 
discourage rather than to stimulate him. It is not that the 
teacher is harsh or intentionally unsympathetic. He is 
apparently popular with most of the students and gets 
good response from many of them, but it is evident that he 



288' RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

does not understand these slow-minded pupils or recognize 
his responsibiHty for studying their peculiar needs. At 
lunch one girl declares, in answer to the teacher's question, 
that she hates high school and is looking for a job. "Under 
present conditions," our teacher thinks, *'that is the best 
thing that she can do." 

During her brief conversations with the teachers, the 
visitor expresses her interest in what she has seen, tells 
some of her own experiences with individual pupils, and 
tries to hint gently the need of special treatm^ent in some 
cases. She finds that there is no common ground for 
interpreting the problem. The high school teachers are 
apparently just as devoted to the cause of education as she 
is, but their dominant ideas do not accord with her own. 
One teacher says: "You elementary school people don't 
have to meet the test of college entrance examinations." 
Another says: "Children are coddled too much in the 
elementary school and when they come to us, they can't 
stand on their own feet. There is nothing like the sink- 
or-swim method of developing character." Our teacher 
tries to be fair. She thinks that she herself may have erred 
at times in anticipating difficulties and preventing failure 
of pupils, instead of putting the responsibiHty upon them. 
"However," she says to herseh as she leaves the building, 
"the sink-or-swim method seems rather costly — for those 
who sink. We've simply got to get together and agree 
on what we are trying to do." 

The teacher next takes her problem to the superintendent. 
He is appreciative of her interest but tells her that she has 
tackled a very hard problem. He is much interested in 
her first step and undertakes to arrange an exchange of 



MUTUAL HELP 289 

visits for all teachers of the eighth grade and the first year 
of high school. The visits are made and, on the whole, are 
valuable. Teachers gain clearer ideas of the working 
conditions in the other school and learn to appreciate 
each other's work somewhat better, but the ideals of the 
two groups of teachers remain far apart. No appreciable 
change in methods of teaching is made in either depart- 
ment. Hardly one of the teachers is sufficiently impressed 
with the necessity of mutual understanding to follow up 
his visit on his own initiative. 

Another talk with the superintendent results in a more 
thoroughgoing trial of the method of visitation. At the 
beginning of a term one of the eighth-grade teachers is 
transferred temporarily to the high school and a high 
school teacher takes an eighth-grade class. This arrange- 
ment is brought about with some difficulty as the high 
school teacher fears that, when it is known that he is teach- 
ing in the elementary school, his professional reputation 
will be injured, and the eighth-grade teacher suspects that 
she will be regarded as an outsider. The high school 
teacher ^'flunks" half the eighth graders and stirs up a 
good deal of resentment among the parents. The eighth- 
grade teacher is critical of the high school administration 
and makes herself persona non grata. Both visitors return 
to their own departments without having influenced the 
other school or changed their own ideas. 

Our teacher then asks that she herself be permitted to 
work with high school freshmen for a term or two and 
suggests that, if possible, a teacher be found to exchange 
with her who is really interested in the experiment. After 
several conferences and a good deal of persuasive effort 

E. T. PROB. — 19 • 



290 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

by the superintendent, the high school principal consents 
to loan one of his strongest teachers, a woman who knows 
the high school thoroughly and is devoted to the welfare 
of the students. 

The two teachers discuss the problem fully and make 
plans for a test which shall settle some of the questions. In 
order to cooperate most effectively they decide to room 
together. They become intensely interested in the problem 
itself, sharing experiences and exchanging advice. A very 
warm friendship grows up. The high school teacher soon 
learns to appreciate the other's knowledge of children and 
keen sympathy with the needs of individuals. The ele- 
mentary teacher admires her friend's keen mind, knowledge 
of books, and abihty to express her ideas. 

There are many arguments which help to clarify the ideas 
of both. The high school teacher comes to accept the 
other's point of view in regard to the responsibility of the 
schools for helping every child to make the most of himself 
whatever his ability. She frequently gives illustrations 
of her own experiences in which she has acted in accordance 
with what she now considers a mistaken point of view. 
Once she has adopted the broader conception of education, 
her ability to think constructively enables her to show how 
high school methods can be changed without detracting 
from the really valuable work which the school has been 
doing. The other teacher absorbs much from her abler 
chum. She reads books which she would never have heard 
mentioned among her former associates. She attends a 
course in literature and makes plans for taking regular 
college work. She sees that she has not been able heretofore 
to furnish an example to the abler pupils or to give 



MUTUAL HELP 29I 

them ideas which would stimulate them to their best 
efforts. 

The high school teacher had never before thought very- 
much about methods of teaching. She had joked about 
" pedaguese " and scorned psychology, but the discussions 
with her roommate about the lessons which she is planning 
to teach the eighth grade or the difficulties encountered 
in making children understand work which seems perfectly 
simple to her, convince her presently that she needs some 
real training in the science and art of teaching. She too 
decides to study, and begins with summer courses in 
educational psychology and methods of teaching English. 

Both teachers influence the schools in which they are 
working temporarily. They make a business of under- 
standing the institutions and are careful to cooperate in the 
established procedure. They show an unassuming friendli- 
ness and interest in the activities of the other teachers. 
After a time both win places in the confidence of their new 
associates and their views tactfully expressed are received 
with respect. Each is naturally looked upon as a repre- 
sentative of the other school, and by her conduct secures 
appreciation of the whole group with whom she is associ- 
ated in the minds of her fellow workers. 

When the teachers return to their regular posts at the 
beginning of the next year, they set to work actively to 
make effective the ideas which they have gained through 
their joint study of the problem. They have long been 
recognized as leaders, and their advice and example are 
readily followed. Elementary teachers begin to read and 
study, and high school teachers to interest themselves in 
professional problems, apart from subject matter. The 



292 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

description by the two chums of the pleasure and profit 
which they have gained from their intimate association 
inspires others to do Hkewise. A few express a desire to 
exchange positions for a year. Interest in the other depart- 
ments of the school system increases. Social affairs which 
were formerly given separately or, when open to all teachers, 
given by the teachers of one school as hosts, are placed in 
the hands of committees made up of representatives of 
several schools. The experience of working together in 
planning and carrying out entertainments and other social 
activities contributes to mutual appreciation and develops 
some warm friendships. The eighth-grade teacher, in 
exchanging congratulations with the superintendent, says : 
"We are getting to be like one big family." 

Principles in Regard to Relationship with Other 
Teachers 

1. Teachers should regard themselves as members of a team, 
engaged in a common enterprise. For the success of the team, 
each member must sacrifice personal opinions and convenience 
in the interest of the common purpose. 

2. Mutual confidence and encouragement of one another are 
essential to a strong team spirit. Jealousy and distrust cut 
down efficiency just as friction does in an engine. 

3. Each teacher ought to be interested in the work of the 
whole system. Where one works without reference to others, 
we have an aggregation of more or less conflicting efforts, not 
a team. 

4. Straightforwardness and frankness prevent misunder- 
standings. 

5. Fairmindedness and willingness to listen to a sincere 
expression of opinion which is opposed to one's own convictions 
are needed for real cooperation. Partisanship or factional 
controversies kill the spirit of unity. 



RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 293 

6. A teacher who is devoted to the welfare of the schools will 
scrupulously avoid all participation in gossip. 

7. Friendly rivalry is stimulating but rivalry which leads 
to partisanship is degrading. 

8. Criticism based upon a sense of responsibility for improv- 
ing the work of the schools is a duty. Fault finding which leads 
to no improvement is destructive. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 204. — Miss A. has established a very friendly re- 
lationship with a class. The next year they come to see her 
frequently, say that they hate Miss B., the new teacher, and 
wish they were back in the old class. Miss B. is hurt, dislikes 
the children, and cherishes a growing grudge against Miss A., 
whom she considers responsible. 

Problem 205. — A plan for increasing the length of the school 
year is proposed. Most of the teachers in a school are strongly 
opposed to it. A few of the teachers are convinced that it would 
be to the advantage of the children, but take no part in the dis- 
cussion at the teachers* meeting, because the sentiment is so 
strong that they would be very unpopular if they should give 
support to the obnoxious plan. 

Problem 206. — A rumor of misconduct on the part of a teacher 
gains circulation. There is no definite evidence but the rumor is 
accepted by many as truth and the supposed offender is ostra- 
cized. 

Problem 207. — A teacher remarks that no money would tempt 
her to teach in one of the other schools of the system. The 
remark is repeated and leads to a lack of cordiaHty between the 
teachers of the two schools. 

Problem 208. — A teacher who has always taught in her own 
home town takes a position a long distance away. She does not 
make friends easily and becomes very homesick. 

Problem 209. — In order to promote acquaintance among 
the teachers, the Teachers' Association arranges some social 



294 RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 

affairs. Some teachers do not attend. One says in explanation 
that these affairs are stupid. He sees teachers every day. He 
prefers to get social relaxation in other ways. 

Problem 210. — A teacher learns that the salary of another 
has been raised. She thinks of many reasons, perfectly convinc- 
ing to her, why she herseff is more entitled to an increase than 
the one who has received it. She discusses the alleged injus- 
tice with other teachers and intimates that the superintendent 
has been insincere in remarks about salary matters which she 
recalls somewhat dimly at first but more and more positively as 
she repeats the tale. It is suggested that the personal likes and 
dislikes of the principal may be responsible, and this idea pres- 
ently comes to be regarded as fact. The agitation does not re- 
sult in any additional salary changes but causes an unpleasant 
atmosphere in the schools and wins for our teacher the reputa- 
tion of being a trouble maker. 

Problem 211. — A series of tests is given in all the schools of 
a city system. When the results are published, it is found that 
one of the schools stands highest in nearly all the tests. The 
teachers in one of the other schools are much disappointed. 
Their attention centers upon the pecuHar advantages enjoyed 
by the first school. They cannot tolerate the idea that the 
superior results are due to better teaching. One suggests that 
a lax interpretation of the rule for giving the tests might account 
for the apparent superiority. The superintendent asks teachers 
to send him their views of the value of the competition and to 
state how the greatest possible benefit can be gained from it. 

Problem 212. — Two teachers go to the principal and complain 
that the lax disciplinary standards of another teacher are causing 
trouble. They say that he takes no responsibility for correcting 
cases of misbehavior in the corridors, and that he allows so much 
freedom in his own classes that the pupils are difficult to con- 
trol when they go to other rooms. The principal replies that he 
assumes their motive for speaking of the matter to be solely 
to improve the school, and asks what they have done to over- 
come the difficulty. They are somewhat taken aback as they 
had done nothing but to complain and gossip about the situation 
and had expected him to deal with it. He asks them to think 



RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TEACHERS 295 

the matter over and decide upon the best way of solving the 
problem. 

Problem 213. — A teacher, who desires to understand better 
the pupils who come to her at the beginning of the year, visits 
the next lower grade. The teacher of this class is much annoyed. 
She thinks the other ought to attend to her own affairs and not 
come spying on her neighbors. The coolness of the atmosphere 
puzzles the visitor. 



CHAPTER XIV 

PROBLEMS OF RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

Cooperation with Parents; Face-to-Face Method, 
THE Child Labor Problem; Educating Parents 

Problem 214. 

Dear Mrs. Brown : 

I am sorry to say that Fred is not doing well in school. 
Unless he improves, he cannot be promoted. I will assign some 
review work for him to do at home every day. If he does this 
faithfully, I think he can catch up with the class. Will you 
see that he does this regularly ? 

Yours sincerely, 

Helen Johnson 
Dear Madam : 

If Fred is not doing well in school, you had better see 
that he does. That is what you are paid for. I shall cer- 
tainly not allow him to do any school work at home. The 
school day is much too long now. And he will he promoted. 
Don't forget that. 

Mrs. J. H. Brown 

Miss Johnson shows the parentis letter to several of her 
friends. An impromptu indignation meeting is held forth- 
with, at which impassioned speeches are delivered on the 
outrage of insults to which teachers are subjected when 
they go out of their way to help indifferent pupils. Mrs. 
Brown's domineering attitude especially arouses the ire 
of the participants. One says: ''She'll try to bulldoze 
the principal into promoting the boy if you try to hold him 

296 



COOPERATION WITH PARENTS 297 

back. Such a woman will stop at nothing to have her 
own way. If I were you I'd fight this thing to the last 
ditch and resign if I were overruled." 

Miss Johnson's impulse is to stand on her dignity. When 
someone asks if she intends to reply to the note, she re- 
plies : ''Certainly not. I wouldn't demean myself by paying 
the sHghtest attention to it." To herself she exclaims: 
"Catch me bothering any more with that Fred Brown! 
He can go on loafing for all I care, but he won't be promoted 
if I know myself." 

As it happens, the note is received on Friday, and there is 
no immediate opportunity to play My Lady Haughty 
toward the boy. On Sunday the text is: ''Blessed are ye 
when men shall revile you and persecute you and say all 
manner of evil against you falsely for My sake." The 
preacher speaks of the hardships which missionaries have 
undergone, of the persecution of leaders in science whose 
discoveries have proved to be of immense value to humanity, 
and dwells upon the unfair criticism and even vilification 
to which pubHc men are subjected. "The great work of 
the world," he declares, "is done by people who refuse to be 
diverted from their purpose by hardship or misunderstand- 
ing or unfair treatment. Every one of us could accomplish 
far more if we would follow our ideals, holding to our 
purposes in the midst of obstacles and maintaining our 
self-control in the face of misunderstanding, lack of appre- 
ciation, and fault finding. The person who is sincerely 
devoted to a cause is not tender of his personal feelings or 
comfort. He does not waste time in trying to get even 
with opponents but deals with them in the way which will 
best further his purpose." 



298 RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

The teacher feels as though the minister were preaching 
at her but she does not hear much more of the sermon 
because her mind is busy with Mrs. Brown and her hopeful 
son. By the time the benediction is pronounced, she has 
formulated this note : 

Dear Mrs. Brown : 

I am afraid that I did not make myself clear. I had no 
intention of disclaiming responsibility for Fred's progress. I 
have really tried very hard to get him to do his best and I shall 
continue to do so, but I have not yet discovered how to make 
him work. I have no doubt that your influence over him is 
stronger than mine and with your cooperation I can certainly 
succeed better. The after-school work is merely a suggestion — 
the best thing that I could think of. If you think it will do 
him any harm, you are, of course, wise in not using it. A weak 
body would be too high a price to pay for promotion. I shall 
keep you informed of Fred's work, but please understand that 
my purpose is not to find fault but to do all I can to insure his 
success. 

Yours sincerely, 

Helen Johnson 

When this letter is written, the teacher reads it over and 
says to herself : *' She'll think I'm scared and am trying to 
mollify her. Never mind, if I succeed in my purpose.'' 

On Monday she tries a new plan with the boy. She 
does not prod but tries her best to interest him and arouse 
his ambition. On giving him a bit of praise at the first 
opportunity, she whispers: ''Let's see if we can't surprise 
your mother. I had to send her a discouraging letter last 
week. I want to send her a good one next Friday." At 
the close of school. Master Fred starts with a book under 
his arm. The teacher calls him aside and says: "I don't 
think your mother likes to have you take books home. She 



COOPERATION WITH PARENTS SQQ 

thinks you will injure your health if you study outside of 
school." ^'I'm no baby,'* he retorts, "I can study as well 
as anybody else." 

The next day he brings in some of the exercises which the 
teacher planned for him the previous week. "Good!" 
she exclaims, "but does your mother know that you did 
these?" "Sure!" he replies, "and she wants you to let 
her know whether they are right." 

Problem 215. — A teacher "loses his head" and slaps a boy's 
face. The law forbids corporal punishment and the parent 
threatens to bring suit against the teacher. 

The superintendent sends for the teacher and asks for an 
explanation. The teacher admits that he struck the boy 
but excuses himself on the ground that the pupil was 
unbearably insolent. He is sure that the youngster was 
not hurt. All the talk about a terrible headache and 
shattered nerves is nonsense. The boy is a bully and has 
been in the habit of pummeling smaller boys. He ought 
to have had a real thrashing. His whining about a little 
slap shows his yellow streak. If he gets any support it 
will ruin the discipline of the school. The parent's attitude 
is merely vindictive. He thrashes the boy himself un- 
mercifully, but he is the kind who has a perpetual grouch 
and is always looking for trouble. 

"That may all be true," says the superintendent, "but 
what are you going to do about it?" "Nothing," the 
teacher replies. " If you and the school board stand behind 
me, the matter will blow over, and it will have a good 
effect on the school." "That might be true," rejoins the 
superintendent, "if it were not for two things : the resent- 



300 RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

ment of the boy and his father, and the influence of un- 
thinking public opinion. Your method would make it 
very difficult to get any cooperation henceforth from either 
pupil or parent. Even if the matter should go no farther, 
you would have two enemies." 

"I'm not afraid of their enmity," the teacher interrupts. 
"The boy is a bad egg and the father is an intolerant 
bully. I have no desire for their friendship." 

"What are you trying to do?" asks the superintendent. 
The teacher does not understand the import of the question 
and the superintendent goes on : "We are aiming to develop 
citizens, are we not? Will it aid in the solution of our 
problem to have two sullen or actively hostile opponents 
of the schools? It seems to me that, as far as these two 
are concerned, the effect will be deterioration of citizenship 
rather than improvement. 

I said a moment ago that, if the matter should go no 
farther, you would have two enemies, but it will go farther 
unless we do something promptly to stop it. The case is 
already being talked about and naturally the facts will 
become more and more distorted as the story is repeated. 
I have had several inquiries by telephone and a reporter 
called this morning for a 'story.' I asked him to delay his 
report until I had had opportunity to investigate the case 
but, unless we give him a statement very soon, he will 
be sure to use the materials for a sensational story which are 
flying about and will soon have the whole town excited. 
You can imagine what a bad effect that will have upon the 
schools." 

"Well, what do you think I ought to do?" the teacher 
asks. "Let us think it out," says the superintendent. 



THE FACE-TO-FACE METHOD 3OI 

"We want, if possible, to calm down the parent and change 
the boy's attitude and we want to maintain the confidence 
of the people in the schools. The thing which feeds excite- 
ment in the individual and in the mob is an issue, a combat. 
If we can destroy the issue, the feeling will subside. You 
probably know of cases in a political campaign in which the 
enemy's guns have been silenced by removing their target. 
Now what are the attacks aimed at?" ''At my striking 
the boy." "Exactly ! and the trouble is that they have an 
unanswerable argument. The law forbids the use of 
corporal punishment. You cannot successfully defend an 
infraction of the law, especially when it can be made to 
appear as abuse of a child, which arouses pubHc anger more 
quickly than almost anything else. Since you cannot defend 
your position, suppose you abandon it. Why not admit 
frankly that you were wrong in using force and regret that 
you did so on the impulse of the moment? That would 
remove the issue and probably cause a revulsion of feeling. 
Then you can get some calm consideration of the other 
factors in the case." 

"All right," says the teacher, "I'll ask the father to 
come and talk it over." "No, I wouldn't do that," the 
superintendent advises. "In his present mood, he would 
say, 'Let him come to me if he wants to.' If I were in your 
place, I would spike that gun by going straight to him." 

"He'll think I am afraid, of course, and am trying to save 
my skin." "Very likely, although that will depend upon 
the way in which you conduct yourself. At any rate, if 
you are not afraid, if you are doing what you believe to be 
right, you need not be greatly concerned about what he 
thinks of you." 



302 RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

''I'll go to see him this evening/' the teacher agrees. 
" Better go now. You will find him at his place of business. 
Don't let the fire get any hotter." 

The teacher finds the parent in his little store and asks 
for a few words in private. The man says brusquely: "I 
don't care to talk to you. My lawyer is attending to the 
case." The teacher maintains his poise, and says: "I 
won't take but a minute of your time. I made a mistake 
and I would rather straighten it out with you." This 
surprises the parent and he allows himself to listen. The 
teacher explains that he acted in sudden anger, that he is 
aware that the law forbids the use of force and that even if 
it were not so, he should not, as a teacher, have given way 
to temper. 

The man's first impulse is to make some sneering re- 
mark about backing down, but the teacher doesn't act 
like a coward who is trying to crawl out of a hole. He 
makes no excuses — merely a straightforward statement. 
This takes the fight out of the father's manner, and as the 
teacher starts to go, he asks: "What did the little devil 
do?" A friendly talk follows during which the parent 
offers to ''lick the boy in good shape " whenever the teacher 
has cause for complaint. 

The latter thinks to himself that, if he takes advantage 
of this invitation, the punishment will probably be over- 
done. He resolves to learn how to deal with the boy 
himself. 

The father remarks that he "blew off a good deal of 
steam " earlier in the morning to a newspaper chap and 
volunteers to head off publication of the story. The 
evening paper contains the following paragraph : 



THE CHILD LABOR PROBLEM 303 



It was reported recently that a teacher in our local schools 
would be the defendant m a lawsuit on the charge of assaulting 
a boy. Our representative has interviewed the parent and 
learned that the report was exaggerated and that the matter 
has been amicably adjusted between the two parties." 

Problem 216. — A parent insists on taking his fourteen-year- 
old daughter out of school. The teacher tries to convince him 
that he is injuring the child and is acting in opposition to the 
public welfare, but the parent declares that she will be married 
soon and this is his only chance to get back part of what she has 
cost him. 

The teacher is shocked by the father's apparent indiffer- 
ence to the child's welfare. That a man would frankly 
declare that he is intent on getting back the money which he 
has invested in the raising of his daughter seems incredible. 
It is as if he were raising pigs. She thinks he is a villain. 

She goes to the superintendent to urge him not to grant 
working papers for the girl. *' I wish I could avoid it," 
he says. "Unfortunately the law gives me no power to 
withhold the papers since she is fourteen and has completed 
the fifth grade. The law ought to be changed but that 
will be hard to accomplish. There are very strong influ- 
ences which have been able so far to prevent all attempts 
to raise the limit of compulsory education." 

"Well, can't you induce the parent to allow the child to 
remain in school ? " the teacher asks. " I will try, of course," 
he replies, "but I have very little hope of success. I have 
wasted endless time in scores of just such cases. In hardly 
one of them have I succeeded in making any impression. 
There is a large group of people, chiefly foreigners, who have 
always been used to the practice of putting children to 



304 



RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 



work early and taking all their earnings. The girls marry j 
very young and neither they nor their parents have any] 
appreciation of the value of education." 

The teacher then talks to the girl, trying to show her that' 
she is throwing away a chance to make the most of herself, 
and that when it is too late she will realize the mistake. 
The girl does not oppose these arguments but insists that 
the family needs her help and that her father will not 
allow her to stay in school. The teacher approves her 
desire to help but declares that she will be able to contrib- i 
ute much more to the family income after she has had more 
education. This seems to make no impression and the 
teacher soon reahzes that the girl herself is determined to 
leave. It seems useless to continue the struggle. The 
teacher acknowledges defeat, the papers are granted, and 
the girl goes to work in a mill. 

A few months later, the teacher reads an article on *' Chil- 
dren in Industry." The writer gives statistics showing 
that a large percentage of children leave school before they 
have finished the elementary school course. He gives the 
facts in regard to employment, showing that many of these 
children drift from one emplo3niient to another and are 
often out of work. He says that only a very small fraction 
of boys and girls under eighteen are employed in positions 
which afford any educational development. ''The worst 
of it is," he says, "that these future citizens are deprived 
of all training tending to fit them for success in a vocation 
or for intelHgent performance of civic duties. They leave 
school before they are mature enough to appreciate political 
and social problems, and the result is that ideas which are 
needed for breadth of view and ideals which are fundamental 



THE CHILD LABOR PROBLEM 305 

in a right attitude toward the public welfare can be imparted 
to only a relatively small part of the rising generation.'' 
The article ends with these words; *'Here is a menace to 
our boasted democracy. If disaster is to be averted, it 
behooves our educators to see to it that the public schools 
reach all of our future citizens.'' 

The teacher finds herself in full sympathy with the 
author. "When will people wake up?" she asks im- 
patiently. Then a remark occurs to her which she heard 
in a recent address on civic responsibility. "Our motto," 
said the speaker, "seems to be 'Let George do it.' We 
inveigh against the defects in our body politic and our 
social order. We say: 'That ought to be changed' and 
'Somebody ought to get busy,' but we ourselves are too 
fully occupied with our personal affairs to take hold of our 
own end of the problem." 

"Is there anything which a teacher can do?" she asks 
herself. Her experience with the Italian girl comes to 
mind. "I certainly tried my best," she says to herself. 
"I didn't call for George that time." Then she remembers 
another of the lecturer's points, "We can't expect to solve 
these problems at an afternoon tea. To get anywhere, we 
must study them and keep working on them — for years 
if necessary." The teacher reflects upon the superin- 
tendent's description of his wasted efforts. At first she 
accepts this as evidence of the futility of any work which 
she might do, but presently it occurs to her, in connection 
with the lecturer's contention that such a problem must be 
studied and persistently attacked, that after all each 
separate case has not received very thorough consideration. 
The efforts have been limited to a few attempts to persuade 

E. T. PROB. — 20 



306 RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

parents and children. ''If the problem is so vital to the 
welfare of the country," she thinks, "a way must be 
found to solve it. Perhaps I can make a thorough study 
of a single case. That might show the real causes of the 
difficulty even if it does not discover the remedy." 

She writes a letter to her former pupil, expressing a 
desire to know how she is getting along, and inviting the 
girl to call at her home. She finds that there are already 
signs of deterioration. The girl has coarsened. Her 
language is crude and her dress shows a cheap imitation 
of the extreme in style. Nothing upHfting seems to have 
come into her life since she left school. Asked what she 
does for fun, the girl says she doesn't have much, as her 
father will not allow her to go out evenings unless he goes 
with her. The teacher modifies her estimate of his villainy. 
He evidently has some concern for his daughter's welfare. 
A good many parents of American ancestry might well 
copy this type of control. 

By a little artful fishing, she secures an invitation to visit 
the girl's home. She finds a family of ten : father, mother, 
grandmother, and seven children, closely packed in a Uttle 
house. She thinks it is no wonder that the girl's help is 
needed to support so many, but she learns that they own 
the home and are rapidly paying off the mortgage. In 
the rear of the house is a very well-kept garden ; the chil- 
dren are well dressed; and at subsequent visits she dis- 
covers that they have plenty to eat, although the food is 
of a much cheaper kind than she herself is used to. She 
gets some ideas of economy and thrift and comes to respect 
these new friends. It is certainly not true that ambition is 
lacking, even if it does not include education of girls. 



THE CHILD LABOR PROBLEM 307 

The father speaks very broken English and can under- 
stand only the simplest statements. The mother and 
grandmother do not understand a word and conversation is 
carried on through the children as interpreters. The teacher 
discovers that, not only in language but in customs and 
ideals, these people are thoroughly foreign. Her real 
discovery is that they are , not the ignorant, obstinate, 
sordid people that she had pictured. They are wise in 
their own way and they have enthusiasms and ideals. 
The secret is that they are different. They do not fit into 
their American environment. 

The teacher muses on the impKcations of this discovery. 
It is all wrong that these people should be looked upon with 
suspicion and contempt. They have much to contribute 
to the community, she feels, if people would only learn to 
understand them and bring them out. On the other 
hand, if they are to live in America, they must learn the 
things that America at its best stands for. Before they 
can fit into American Hfe they must learn its language. 
She is rather appalled by the magnitude of the problem. 
She has seen enough to know that the differences which she 
has noticed are deep-seated, traditional. No superficial 
campaign of Americanism will produce anything more than 
a surface change. 

But she has learned certain things through her contact 
with this one family. She has established a really friendly 
relationship. She feels that they have greater confidence 
in the school system and understand a little better what the 
schools are trying to do. The girl has responded to her 
friendliness and is beginning to take an interest in books 
and ideas which are uplifting. .She. becomes acquainted 



308 RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

with other Italian girls and meets them as a group occa- 
sionally. 

These informal meetings lead to the formation of a club, 
and the teacher has the satisfaction of knowing that these 
few young people are developing toward a fine womanhood 
and are coming to accept some of the ideals which she likes 
to call American. The club, in order to raise some money, 
prepares an entertainment consisting of ItaHan music, folk 
dances, and folk tales. The teacher induces some of the 
prominent citizens to attend and smiles with satisfaction 
at their surprise and admiration. 

She frequently reports her experiences to the superin- 
tendent and discusses the problem with him. The result 
is that her study of the problem is given a broader scope by 
an appointment, to which she is to give her full time, as 
educational director in the foreign colony. About this 
time the girl whose abandonment of school first started the 
teacher on a new career rushes into her Httle office with 
shining eyes. "Hurrah!" she cries, "My father says that 
Angelina (a younger sister) may go through high school." 

Problem 217. — A mother makes it a practice to visit her 
daughter's class frequently and to make critical comments on 
what she observes. She is a college graduate and shows a rather 
lofty condescension in advising teachers in regard to proper 
methods of education. Most of the teachers who have been 
through the ordeal consider the woman a nuisance or a bugaboo, 
according to their temperaments. The teacher of the class 
to which the girl is about to be promoted tries to think out the 
best way of meeting the problem. 

The teacher recalls the various attitudes of teachers who 
have had the child. One was combative. She used to 
tell of heated arguments in which she gave the woman "as 



EDUCATING PARENTS 369 

good as she sent/' until the latter would go to the principal 
to complain. The teachers used to say that the principal 
always managed to have an important engagement which 
would take him away from the building whenever he learned 
that Mrs. W. was visiting school. 

Another teacher used to be very cold and formal, listening 
impassively to the mother's vigorous denunciation of course 
of study or methods or class behavior. She never allowed 
herself to be drawn into a debate, but neither did she pay 
the slightest attention to the woman's views. 

Still another resorted to bluff and frequently regaled her 
associates with dramatic reproductions of interviews in 
which she appeared to be greatly impressed by Mrs. W.'s 
superior knowledge and made an elaborate show of following 
her advice. In reality she stuck persistently to her own 
methods. 

The child's present teacher, of rather timid personality, 
is really cowed by the stronger will. She tries to avoid 
irritating the visitor, even abandoning temporarily some 
items of classroom procedure, which in her heart she believes 
to be sound. She is punctiliously careful in her treat- 
ment of the girl and often permits her to work in a different 
way from that which she requires other children to use. 

None of these methods satisfies our teacher. She says 
to herself : "We school people often complain of the indiffer- 
ence of parents. We urge their cooperation. Mrs. W. 
is certainly not indifferent. She is apparently willing to 
take rather more than her share of responsibility. If we 
are sincere in our desire for cooperation, we ought not to 
meet her with rebuff or try to render all her efforts futile. 
Of course, she must not be permitted to dominate the school, 



3IO RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

but neither must I be cocksure in every case at issue. 
Cooperation does not consist in having the other fellow do 
as one wants. We must try to agree on what we are trying 
to do and learn to work together." 

On the last day of school, when the teacher is trying to 
make every minute count, Mrs. W. sweeps majestically 
into her room. The teacher exclaims, ^'Bother!" under 
her breath, but she fights down the impulse to finish the 
task upon which she is engaged, and advances with a cordial 
smile and outstretched hand. "Good morning, Mrs. W.," 
she says heartily, ''I'm so happy at the prospect of having 
Lucille in my class next year. I want to have a talk with 
you. Sit here for a moment while I put the children to 
work." She places a chair and immediately gives her 
attention to the class. 

The woman was all ready, when she entered the room, 
to give the teacher some positive instruction about her 
daughter. Her manner is masterful and she never hesitates 
to interrupt a class and never lowers her tone of voice in 
addressing a teacher, but this young person has met the 
situation so promptly, with such self-confidence and at the 
same time so courteously that for once she is surprised into 
sitting down without a word. 

After a few minutes, the teacher draws up a chair and 
says briskly : " This is such a terribly busy day that I can 
steal only a moment. If you will set a time I should be 
glad to call upon you or make an appointment here if you 
would prefer. I have heard so much about your interest 
in the school that I am looking forward to some real co- 
operation." The woman starts on her lecture but the 
teacher soon finds opportunity to say in a lower tone but 



EDUCATING PARENTS 311 

with no embarrassed effort to suggest that the conversation 
is disturbing: ''I am so glad to have your advice. Now, 
when may I see you to go over the matter thoroughly?" 
Mrs. W. wants to continue, but she cannot very well refuse 
to meet the teacher's confident lead, so she names a time 
and is bowed out under the controlling influence of the 
other's smile. 

At the subsequent interview, the teacher at first allows the 
parent to do most of the talking. She listens attentively, 
studying the speaker and trying to keep an open mind. 
Occasionally she interposes a question which leads the other 
woman to reahze that she herself has not a perfectly secure 
basis for her opinions. 

One complaint is that the children are not taught good 
manners. They are given entirely too much freedom. 
Lucille has been brought up with the greatest care but 
frequently she needs rebuke for being too forward in ex- 
pressing her views, or for using vulgar expressions. If 
this continues the mother will feel obliged to send her to a 
private school. 

The teacher agrees that children fall far short of her 
ideals in habits of courtesy and that the schools should 
take responsibihty for training them. She points out, 
however, that they are often subjected to influences out- 
side the school which affect both language and manners. 
Schools have tried for years to fix standards of conduct 
by rigid control during school hours, but the effort has been 
vain because, when relieved of supervision, the children have 
reverted to the easier paths. "Why even Lucille, who has 
had far more careful attention than we can hope to give in 
school to any one child, sometimes falls from grace." 



312 RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

"We are working now," the teacher continues, "on a 
different theory. We beHeve that habits which are de- 
veloped under strict control are liable to fail in a different 
environment where control is absent. We are trying to 
lead the children to think, to form ideals, to take respon- 
sibiUty for their own conduct. We cannot expect to have 
a result which is outwardly so perfect as when conduct is 
directed by a forceful adult, but if we could look inside the 
child's mind, we might find that a more permanent change 
is going on. If a child really wants to be courteous, is 
there not a better chance of his resisting degrading influences 
than if he has merely been forced to be courteous for a 
part of the time? For my own part, I can forgive rude- 
ness in a child when it is due to ignorance or lack of appre- 
ciation of the significance of his act. If he means well 
we can afford to be patient and take time to bring about an 
improvement." 

This is a new idea to the mother. She does not accept 
it at once, but it lies in her mind and leads to a more sympa- 
thetic observation of the freedom which children are per- 
mitted in school and which she has criticized so severely. 

Another complaint has to do with the teaching of spelling. 
"It is deplorable," Mrs. W. declares with an emphasis 
which admits no denial. "Children are no longer taught 
to spell. Lucille's spelling is atrocious. There is nothing 
which serves to distinguish the cultured person from the 
boor so quickly as his spelling. Mistakes in spelling should 
not be tolerated. Children should be drilled until they are 
letter perfect." 

"I sympathize with your point of view," the teacher 
repKes. "I confess that a mistake in spelling irritates me 



EDUCATING PARENTS 313 

more than an error in judgment or even a moral fault, but 
I wonder if that is not because spelling is so easy for me that 
I detect a mistake instantly. I have tried to school myself 
to be sympathetic with those — and they seem to be 
many — who find spelling very difficult. I wonder if it 
is possible for everybody to learn to spell perfectly without 
sacrificing something even more important." 

"It used to be done," Mrs. W. declares. "In my day, 
spelling matches aroused as much excitement as an athletic 
contest does to-day." "We have spelling matches too," 
the teacher says pleasantly, "only we try to give all an 
equal chance. The old matches gave the most practice to 
the best spellers." 

"Well, there is no doubt that spelling is getting to be a 
lost art," Mrs. W. declares with finaHty. At this the 
teacher says sweetly, "I wonder if you have heard of the 
Springfield Tests." Mrs. W. has never heard of them so 
the teacher explains how some examination papers, both 
questions and pupils' answers, were discovered in Spring- 
field, Massachusetts, fifty years after they were written. 
"These tests," she goes on to say, "have been given in many 
schools and the results pubKshed. All the evidence seems to 
show that school boys and girls to-day do better in spelling, 
as well as in other subjects, than even older pupils did two 
generations earlier. May I send you a little book which 
gives an account of these tests? I am sure you would 
be interested." 

There is further talk about books, children's dress, 
etc., and the interview comes to an end with a considerable 
degree of mutual friendliness and respect. The teacher 
promptly sends the booklet and, from time to time, refers 



314 RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

the parent to other books and articles. Mrs. W. comes to 
realize that people of abihty have been studying education. 
She begins to be less sure of her own convictions and more 
and more interested in studying the problem. 

After the new school year begins, she visits the class 
frequently and has many earnest talks with the teacher. 
She follows the progress of the work with attention and 
becomes interested in other children besides her own. The 
teacher finds her a real help, although she has to use diplo- 
macy at times to prevent interruption of the class. The 
mother uses her influence to secure some desired equipment, 
and contributes pictures for the walls of the schoolroom and 
books for the class library. She takes the lead in securing 
the cooperation of other parents in regard to children's social 
activities and control of diet. Before the close of the term, 
she brings about the organization of a Home and School 
Association and is elected president. 

One day after the new association has already demon- 
strated its usefulness, the teacher is chatting with the prin- 
cipal on the subject and expressing admiration of the energy 
which Mrs. W. has displayed in efforts for the benefit of 
the school. The principal says, with a smile: *'Do you 
know, I used to think that that woman was a pest. Now 
I am almost ready to say that she is the best asset that this 
school possesses." 

Principles in Regard to Relationship with Parents 

I. The influence of parents over a child is often great. Their 
opportunities for affecting character are greater than those of 
the teacher, because theirs is a continuous influence and a more 
intimate one. At any rate, it must be taken into account, if 



RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 315 

the teacher is sincere in his desire to bring about the best develop- 
ment of the child. 

2. For the greatest effect, there should be mutual under- 
standing between parent and teacher, a common purpose, 
and sympathetic cooperation. 

3. The teacher ought not to take a personal view of his re- 
lationship with a parent. The important thing is to obtain 
the best results for the child. The teacher should study the 
parent, and aim to act so as to get the kind of response which 
will contribute most to the purpose in hand. 

4. Antagonizing a parent defeats the teacher's main purpose. 
It may be a personal satisfaction to " get even " after unreason- 
able or unfair treatment, but in such a case the teacher's feelings 
are put before the welfare of the child. 

5. The parent's viewpoint should be appreciated. It need 
not be accepted but it must not be ignored. 

6. Cases of disagreement or misunderstanding should be 
settled, whenever possible, between the teacher and the parent 
— not through a third party : principal, superintendent, school- 
board member. 

7. A teacher should strive to win the confidence of parents. 
The best way is to deserve it. 

8. Teachers should welcome every sincere effort of parents to 
cooperate. 

. 9. In order to accomplish his purpose, the teacher must take 
some responsibility for giving to parents sound ideas of edu- 
cation and for developing a mllingness to cooperate. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 218. 

Dear Miss Johnson : 

Please excuse Helen's absence yesterday. She was out 
late the night before, so I let her sleep and she didn't feel like 
going to school in the afternoon. Please let her leave at three 
o'clock this afternoon so that she can rest a Httle before she goes 
to dancing school. 

Yours very truly, 

Antoinette Cilley (Mrs. A. J.) 



3l6 RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 

Problem 219. — A teacher receives some attention from the 
parents of one of her pupils. She is entertained at their house 
and receives an expensive present at Christmas. Later in the 
year the mother intimates that the child ought to have the lead- 
ing part in an assembly program given by the class. " She is 
so clever and she has set her heart upon it." 

Problem 220. — The parents of a pupil who has failed of pro- 
motion are very angry. They say that they had received no 
intimation that their boy was not doing well. 

Problem 221. — A parent goes to a member of the school 
board with a complaint against his son's teacher. He declares 
that the teacher publicly insulted the family. The teacher is 
at first at a loss to know where the parent got such an idea, but 
recalls that he rebuked the boy for sharpening a pencil on the 
floor and asked : " Does your mother permit you to do that at 
home? " It turns out that the boy reported the remark : "You 
haven't learned proper manners at home." 

Problem 222. — A parent ridicules the method in use in the 
school for teaching penmanship. He tells his daughter not to 
make certain letters like the models furnished by the school. 

Problem 223. — A parent " calls down " a teacher for pre- 
suming to seat her child beside a negro girl, and demands that 
the seat be changed forthwith. Every seat in the room is filled. 

Problem 224. — A teacher is much dissatisfied with a boy in 
her class. He is frequently late, plays truant, and is inattentive 
in class. She writes notes to the parent without eiEfect. She 
has never visited the home. 

Problem 225. — A movement is started to form a Parent- 
Teacher Association. Teachers are asked to express their views 
on the question of its desirability. 

Problem 226. — A boy is directed to remain after school for 
misbehavior. At dismissal time, he starts to go with the other 
pupils. The teacher orders him to his seat and he replies : " My 
mother told me to come straight home at the close of school." 



RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS 317 

" I don't care what your mother told you," the teacher retorts. 
" Do as I tell you ! " He takes his seat and maintains a sullen 
manner until he is dismissed a half hour later. The parent is 
very indignant and complains to the principal that she was 
unable to keep a very important engagement because the boy 
did not return as directed, to take care of the baby. She main- 
tains a hostile attitude toward the teacher, and the boy resists 
all attempts to restore a friendly relationship. The teacher 
wonders whether she could have handled the case more effec- 
tively, and what she ought to do to meet the situation which has 
arisen. 

Problem 227. — A high school teacher imposes a severe penalty 
upon a student for what he regards as direct disobedience. The 
student reports the matter at home, protesting that she did not 
hear the teacher's direction. The father is furious and demands 
that the teacher apologize to his daughter. The latter reahzes 
that he may have been mistaken, but fears that if he recedes 
from his position, the girl will think that she has " put one over 
on him." Besides, the father's attitude is so combative that 
it would be humiliating to " back down." 

REFERENCES 

King, I., Education for Efficiency, Chapters V, VI. 

Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher. 

Patri, A., A Schoolmaster of the Great City. 

Millard, C. N., A Parent's Job. 

Sechrist, F. K., Education and the General Welfare, Chapter XXII. 



CHAPTER XV 

PROBLEMS OF PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

Keeping out of the Ruts; Learning the Teade; 
THE N. E. A. ; Making Teaching Respectable 

Problem 228. — A superintendent expresses the view that 
teachers ought not to teach the same grade continuously for 
many years. He thinks that this practice tends to narrow the 
teacher's interest and Hmit her knowledge of the whole process 
of education. A teacher who has taught the first grade for 
ten years is unwilUng to change — says she is a first-grade 
teacher. The superintendent agrees to give careful considera- 
tion to her views but insists that she give convincing reasons 
why the change should not be made. 

The teacher is not inclined to take very seriously the 
superintendent's request for reasons. She simply does not 
like to be drawn into an argument with him. To her it is 
not a question of logic at all. She is supported in this view 
by many other teachers. One of them says : *' Things have 
come to a pretty pass if a teacher's preferences are not to be 
considered when she has taught as long as you have." 

One of the ablest teachers in the school takes a different 
position. He says: ''I think you ought to meet his chal- 
lenge. Most of us hate the idea of making a change but 
we shall be putting ourselves in a bad light if we refuse to 
meet arguments on the other side and show that there is a 
sound basis for our feeling. I'll tell you a scheme. Just 
for the fun of it, I'll be Mr. P. and you try to convince 
me. I'll pick all the flaws that I can find in your argument. 

318 



KEEPING OUT OF THE RUTS 319 

It will be good practice and, between us, we can probably 
work out a brief which will floor him." 

This suggestion promises good fun as the teacher who is 
to impersonate the superintendent is a clever mimic. The 
other teachers applaud the idea and a date is set for the de- 
bate. Both teachers make careful preparation and a large 
group of teachers assembles "to see the fight pulled off." 

The pseudo Mr. P. is seated at a desk piled high with 
papers. He wears big horn-rimmed spectacles somewhat 
exaggerating a prominent feature of the real superintend- 
ent's appearance. The audience titters with delight as he 
peers over the top of his glasses and executes other charac- 
teristic mannerisms. A teacher, mimicking the superin- 
tendent's secretary, enters and announces that Miss F. 
has come to keep her appointment. "Ask her to come in," 
orders the superintendent. "Take a chair," he says as 
Miss F. appears, "I'll be ready in a moment," and he makes 
a show of completing the perusal and signing of some letters. 

"Now," says Mr. P., "let's get to work. Have you 
changed your view?" "No," replies the teacher, "but 
I am prepared to defend my position." "Good," says the 
superintendent, "I am open to conviction. Go ahead." 

The teacher presents her case as follows: "I have been 
teaching the first grade for ten years. I feel that I know the 
work thoroughly. I know the course of study and I have 
worked out methods which are effective with first graders. 
I have accumulated a lot of seat-work material which has 
cost me many hours of work. I do not think it would be 
fair to make me start all over again. It would be like 
making a man, who has achieved success in one line of 
business, abandon that and start another." 



320 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

The counterfeit superintendent remarks: *' Successful 
men often enlarge their enterprises. I know of men who 
have worked very hard to build up a business and, when they 
have had it running smoothly, have branched out into a 
bigger field, leaving the original department in other hands 
and giving their attention to the new one. '' 

"That is not a parallel case at all," retorts Miss F. 
"It is his own business. He enlarges it to make money 
for himself. What should I get out of the change which 
you propose except a lot of extra work? " 

"I think you would get a lot more," the superintendent 
answers. "The men that I know have apparently gained 
something besides money when they have enlarged their 
fields. Indeed they have not always found the extension 
profitable from a financial standpoint, but all of them, I 
think, have become bigger men. Even when they have 
been disappointed in the return, the added experience and 
the effort to master new problems have seemed to make them 
broader-minded and more self-reHant. " 

There is a pause at this point. Miss F. seems to be 
thinking about the superintendent's last point. She is not 
ready with a new argument. The superintendent goes on : 
"You say that my illustration is not a parallel case. 
Granted, but it has some points of similarity. The change 
will not bring you more money, at least there is no certainty 
of its doing so, but then, money is not your chief motive 
in teaching, is it?" 

"Certainly not," snaps Miss F. "If it were, I should 
not be a teacher. I get my satisfaction in working for the 
welfare of my children." 

"Very well," says the other, "if broadening your field 



A MOCK DEBATE 321 

would contribute more to the welfare of children, are you 
not in a somewhat similar position to the business man 
who is considering an enlargement of his business?" 

"It wouldn't contribute more," declares Miss F. "It 
would contribute less. I can certainly do better work in 
the first grade than an5rwhere else. Besides it isn't my 
enterprise as it is his. Even if he does not make more 
money, he has the satisfaction of working out his own plans. 
He takes pride in having a bigger field. I am just a teacher. 
I have no interest in the schools outside my own grade." 

"If you take hold of kindergarten work or of second 
grade in the same spirit that the ambitious business man 
takes hold of a new enterprise, I am sure that you would 
contribute more. The work which you have done in first 
grade would not be lost to the school. It would help your 
successor just as the commercial leader's knowledge of a 
small business aids the subordinate who is put in charge 
of it. With your experience, you would, I believe, do even 
better work in another grade, because you would work 
on the new problems with a zest which you can hardly feel 
for work which you have done over and over. You say 
that it is not your enterprise. That is the great point; 
it ought to be. The education of the children of this 
town is a finer enterprise than any business man ever under- 
took. We ought to think of it, the whole thing, as our 
enterprise. Why should it be less attractive for all of us to 
join forces in such a magnificent undertaking than to work 
on some little thing that is our own property?" 

Miss F. feels that she is not holding her own and, without 
fully realizing it, she is actually beginning to lose faith in 
her own convictions. She clutches at a last straw. "I 

E. T. PROB. — 21 



322 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

understand first-grade children," she says, "and I like to 
work with them. I don't care for older children nor for 
kindergarten babies." 

"Isn't that an admission of weakness?" asks the acting 
superintendent. "We aren't educating children for a year. 
They are very appealing as six-year-olds but they can't 
stay that way. We have got to concern ourselves with their 
development into men^ and wom.en. Isn't it rather absurd 
to enjoy them at one period of their growth and to shut our 
eyes to the rest of their careers ? It seems to me that if we 
are to play an intelHgent part in the whole process of 
development, we ought to understand as much as possible 
of it. Real knowledge of kindergarten and second-grade 
children is bound to help a first-grade teacher. I have no 
idea of removing you permanently from the field which you 
love. I should not wish you to lose all contact with the 
first grade, but I want you to broaden your field of experi- 
ence, and I want the help of one who knows first graders in 
working out the best methods of dealing with them during 
the next year." 

The debate started in a spirit of fun. The teacher who 
represents the superintendent began as an actor trying to 
be another person, but before the discussion comes to an 
end, he is speaking for himself. The audience has forgot 
to watch the proceedings as a play and is seriously attend- 
ing to the thoughts which are sent back and forth. 

"Well," says Mr. P., "what is the verdict?" "Oh! 
stop the play-acting," exclaims Miss F. "I'm going to 
give it a trial." 

Problem 229. — A high school teacher has specialized in college 
in the subject which he teaches and has taken graduate courses 



LEARNING THE TRADE 323 

in the same field. He is scornful of pedagogy, and thinks that 
the teacher's job is to teach his subject. He is annoyed by the 
large number of pupils who are stupid and lazy and know nothing 
about a lesson which he has just carefully explained. 

The teacher gets into conversation with a colleague. He 
is working for a Ph. D. and speaks of the advanced courses 
which he is planning to take during the coming summer. 
The other is interested in the announcement of a course in 
vocational guidance. Each man shows polite interest in 
the other's plans but secretly thinks it a mistaken ambition. 
Our teacher says: *'This high school work is terrible 
drudgery. It is useless to try to put anything scholarly 
before these people. They have no brains at all. As soon 
as I get my degree, I am going in for college work." 

''High school work drudgery!" exclaims the other. 
*'How can you say so? I think these youngsters are won- 
derfully interesting, so full of enthusiasm and so ready to 
respond to a teacher's lead. I haven't any pearls to throw 
away but I find it great fun to feed growing minds." 

''Minds ! " sneers the first teacher contemptuously, " they 
have no minds. What in the world do you find interesting 
in these raw cubs?" 

*'The same interest that a crank on horticulture finds in 
developing a flower," the other replies. '' You or I might not 
find anything exciting in such a project but there is appar- 
ently a fascination for him in studying soils and experi- 
menting with temperature, moisture, sunHght, etc. When 
he succeeds in making a tiny improvement in the plant, he 
is as much elated as if he were Columbus. And to work 
with boys and girls ! — That's a kind of horticulture that is 
worthy of any amount of study." 



324 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

"Just a figure of speech,'' says the scholar. "Your 
horticulturist is a scientific worker. He has splendid books 
to guide him, with records of the most painstakmg experi- 
ments. Education is nothing like that. Education is 
imparting the inherited treasures of civilization. There is 
no pleasure in trying to unfold the great masterpieces of 
literature to youngsters who are interested in nothing but 
baseball and parties or trashy stories. If they don't want 
what I have to give, my idea is to work with people who do." 

"I believe there is a real parallel in my illustration," the 
other teacher argues. "If I understand the horticulturist, 
he does not take some particularly fine plant food and hunt 
for a flower which will thrive on it. He takes his plant and 
tries to find the conditions which will make it grow best. 
I admit that education has not yet acquired a solid basis 
of scientific knowledge, but that is what is needed and it is 
coming fast. I wonder if you know how much good scien- 
tific work has been done in the field of education during the 
past ten years." 

"I didn't suppose there was anything worthy of the 
name of science," the first teacher says skeptically. The 
other man says : ' ' Wait a minute, ' ' and leaves the room. In 
a few minutes he returns with a university catalog and some 
pubhshers' circulars. He reads from a list of courses offered 
by the school of education : "Educational Psychology, The 
Psychology of Thinking, The Psychology of Habit, Mental 
Measurements, The Physical Development of the Child, 
The Phenomena of Adolescence, Development of Moral 
Qualities, Norms of Ability in School Children, Phi- 
losophy of Education, etc." He reads the titles of a 
few professional books, some of which refer explicitly to 



LEARNING THE TRADE 325 

high school problems, and then hands the list to his col- 
league. 

"I don't believe there is any real scholarly material in 
that list," our teacher objects. "I have read some educa- 
tional stuff and it impresses me as superficial advertising of 
people who want to see themselves in print — just a lot of 
hazy generalizations and big-sounding words." 

"You have got hold of the wrong books," says the second 
man. "There is still plenty of that sort of thing, but more 
and more sound professional material is coming out, written 
by men of first-rate ability who are thorough students. 
If you would take the course on Principles of Education by 
Professor Blank, or just read one or two of his books, you 
would get a different idea. He changed my whole point of 
view and made my work, which had seemed rather petty 
and tiresome, an undertaking which gets more and more 
interesting." 

The first teacher takes the university catalog and a 
couple of books which the other man urges him to read. He 
has no intention of spending much time on them, but he 
turns over in his mind some of the ideas which his opponent 
in the argument has emphasized. He dips into the books 
and quickly finds that they are worth reading, so he pres- 
ently goes through them thoughtfully. Unconsciously he 
allows himself to be influenced by the new ideas, and modifies 
his methods of teaching. He finds himself considering the 
possibility of taking Professor Blank's course "just to see 
whether there is anything in it." 

He finally enrolls in the course and after a time puts his 
best effort into it. He has abiHty, and the recognition which 
his written papers receive stimulates him further. He takes 



326 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

more courses, and presently asks for a leave of absence in or- 
der to complete the requirements for a degree in education. 
One day, toward the end of his leave, he meets the other 
teacher. "How goes it?^' asks the latter. ''I'm working 
day and night on my thesis," the first man answers. "I'm 
making a study of the abihties and interests of high school 
students. I hope to show where the high school is failing 
to meet the needs of adolescents and to point out some 
desirable changes." "Why, I thought your dissertation 
was to be on 'The Use of the Conjunction in Milton's 
Minor Poems.'" "It was, but the stackrooms of the 
libraries have been mercifully spared. I am writing for a 
larger group of readers and I rather think that my present 
investigation will do more good." 

Problem 230. — The teachers of a school system are urged to 
join the National Education Association. Few of them respond. 
The common attitude is expressed by the statement of one 
teacher: " Why should I join the association ? I can't afford 
to go to the meetings and anyway I don't propose to spend part 
of my precious summer in traveling off to some hot city, half- 
way across the continent. I should get nothing out of the 
association if I should join. It would be two dollars thrown 
away. Let the people with the big salaries, who like to go to 
meetings and talk, have their association if they want it. It's 
nothing to me." The president of the local teachers' association 
calls a meeting to discuss the matter. 

The president calls the meeting to order and reads a 
circular letter from the secretary of the N. E. A. outKning 
a program and urging teachers to support it. The question 
is then opened for discussion. For several minutes there 
is no response. Everybody seems to be waiting for some- 
one else to do the talking. Nervous people in the front of the 
room turn their heads as if to look for a spokesman. There 



THE N. E. A. 327 

are smiles and some mischievous nudging of neighbors with 
whispered exhortations to rise and testify. 

Finally, the teacher whose point of view has been stated 
in the problem rises and says brusquely: "I may as well 
say what we are all thinking. This is an attempt to get 
money from teachers to support the schemes of a few self- 
constituted leaders who like to be prominent. I don't 
see the use of trying to make a national affair of school 
work. State associations are bad enough. It seems to me 
that each school system ought to manage its own affairs. 
Local teachers have their own interests, but what good 
does it do for people from opposite corners of the country 
to get together and talk? Such associations are usually 
run by cHques and spend a lot of time in factional contro- 
versies. Some people seem to have a mania for organiza- 
tion. Let them organize if they want to, but I don't see 
why teachers who are not interested should pay for their 
magnificent schemes." 

She is applauded vigorously but another teacher is 
moved to say : "I didn't intend to speak, but I don't want 
to let Miss A. 's statement stand as the opinion of all teachers. 
I think we ought to have a national association of teachers 
just as other professions do, and I think we ought to become 
members to show our—" She hesitates for a word and 
finally says "patriotism" as she drops into her seat. 

As soon as the laughter has subsided, the president asks : 
"How many of you are members of the N. E. A. ?" Four 
hands are raised. "How many intend to join?" Three 
or four others go up. Then the president says : "We have 
with us the state representative of the National Education 
Association. She wishes to tell us about its work and I 



328 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

presume that she will explain this campaign to increase 
membership.'' 

The state representative is an attractive woman who has 
evidently had experience in public speaking. She is very 
earnest and she soon has the attention of her audience. 
''A few months ago," she begins, ''a vigorous campaign was 
waged all over the country, in order to secure public support 
for raising teachers' salaries. You may have read some 
splendid editorials on the subject in your local papers and 
wondered whether there was a new editor. If you had 
made inquiries, you would have discovered that the same 
editorials had appeared in almost every paper in the land 
and, if you had traced this educational effort to its source, 
you would have found that it was a part of a campaign 
planned and financed by the National Education Associa- 
tion. The Association has carried out several very thorough 
salary investigations, as well as niunerous other studies 
which have contributed to the improvement of American 
schools. I am sure that you have felt the influence of them 
here, although you have probably not been conscious of the 
fact. 

The National Education Association is now engaged in a 
campaign which, if successful, will have very far-reaching 
effects. It will put into the classrooms throughout the 
country, in rural schools as well as in the cities, in the South 
as well as in the North, trained teachers in place of mere 
children with only a grammar school education or a year 
or two of high school work, who are now, by hundreds, in 
charge of the destinies of the future citizens of America. 
It will bring into the schools many children who, even in 
these days of enlightenment, are deprived of any decent 



THE N. E. A. 329 

chance to make something of themselves. We were shocked 
when the army draft disclosed a vast amount of illiteracy 
among our young men. Is not that an evil which the teach- 
ers of the country should attack ? The National Education 
Association is preparing to lead the way. 

One of your number is in favor of local endeavor in place 
of nationally organized effort. As a nation we are com- 
mitted to local initiative, as opposed to bureaucracy, but 
great, widespread evils cannot be effectively combated by 
a succession of unorganized pin-pricks. If a community 
is self-centered, it may take great satisfaction in building 
up a fine system of schools and congratulate itself on its 
superiority ; but, even from a selfish point of view, it is not 
safe to blind one's eyes to conditions outside one's own 
town or city or state. This is one nation and a sore spot 
anywhere is bound to affect the well-being of the whole. 
The country, for its own good, must learn to think of edu- 
cation in national terms as well as in terms of individual 
schools and school systems. I think, indeed I know, that 
the teachers of America, when they once understand the 
program which their national association has formulated, 
are going to get behind it in a spirit of true patriotism. 

Someone has spoken of the use of large organizations in 
the personal interest of self-seeking individuals, of the 
influence of cliques, and the wasting of effort in factional 
strife. Did you ever stop to think why this is so? No? 
Well, I'll tell you. It is because the rest of us don't care 
enough about the real purposes of the association to make 
any effort to help in keeping it on its true course. We 
are too indolent or too selfish to sacrifice time or effort 
or even a few dollars." 



33© PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

*' Why is it," the speaker demands, leaning forward tense 
with emotion, "that we have bosses, and control of legis- 
lation by selfish interests, and Httle or corrupt men in 
office ? It is because we don't care enough to take a hand. 
We leave pubhc affairs to those who make a business of 
them for their own profit, while we sit back and criticize. 
If your state association or the national association does not 
please you, whose fault is it?" *'Ours," someone says in 
a low tone. ''Yes!" she says instantly. "It is our fault 
unless we get into the game and do our best to set matters 
right. If you don't mean to play, stop finding fault with 
the game — but you do mean to play ! Come on in ! 

There is no longer any excuse for control of the National 
Education Association by factions. The teachers of the 
country have the control in their hands. The association 
is now managed by a representative assembly. Any 
group of fifty-one or more members is entitled to a delegate, 
with additional representation if the group is sufficiently 
large. Your local association should have a delegate. 
You can't all attend every meeting — although you would 
find it a good investment to attend once in a while and, if 
you decide to play the game, you will certainly attend 
meetings which are held within reasonable reach of your 
homes, even at the sacrifice of a few days of vacation — 
but you can always send a delegate. He can act as spokes- 
man on any matter in which you are especially interested 
and he can bring back to you reports of the proceedings and 
a suggestion of the inspiration which such great meetings 
sometimes do and always ought to produce. 

Do I need to say more ? Just one word. The combined 
influence of the teachers of America, acting together through 



MAKING TEACHING RESPECTABLE 33 1 

a mouthpiece responsible to them, can do a splendid service 
to the country. I will not spoil it by mentioning the power 
of such an influence in improving the teacher's status 
although that is unquestionable. Are we willing to forego 
the opportunity to create and maintain that influence ? '' 

There is a torrent of applause and Miss A. jumps to her 
feet and appeals for recognition. When the president has 
called the meeting to order and accorded her the floor, the 
teacher says : " I'm glad I furnished the provocation for such 
a splendid speech. I want to thank the speaker personally. 
I am going to join the National Education Association 
immediately, and I move, Mr. President, that a committee 
be appointed to canvass the teachers for memberships, so 
that we may have our delegate at the next meeting. '^ 

Problem 231. — A man, who has been a high school teacher for 
ten years, finds it difficult to support his wife and two children 
on his small salary. He resents the attitude of the members 
of the board of education in regard to remuneration of teachers. 
Few of them have had half as much education as he, and yet 
they earn much larger incomes and evidently feel that they 
are more important members of the community. He overhears 
the remark of a young lawyer in reference to himself, " Oh ! 
he's only a school teacher." He determines to find out the 
reason for this attitude and the means of changing it. 

The teacher seeks an interview with the president of 
the board of education, explains his financial difficulties, 
and appeals for an increase of salary. The president Hstens 
to his plea in a tolerant and patronizing manner. He says : 
"I should be glad to raise your salary if the decision rested 
with me, but the fact is that the people won't stand for any 
further increase in taxes. We board members are con- 
stantly besieged by tax-payers to keep the budget down.'' 



332 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

"Well," says the teacher in a petulant and unconvincing 
tone, "unless I can earn more money I shall have to quit." 
" That's all right," says the president. " We won't stand in 
the way of your advancement. We shall be sorry to have 
you go but we can't afford to pay you any more. You 
see, we can get a younger man or a woman in your place 
and save several hundred dollars." 

The teacher is disheartened. In spite of himself, he 
feels a certain sense of inferiority before the assurance of 
the successful man of affairs, although his wounded pride 
makes him retort angrily. "What about the pupils?" 
he asks. "Don't you realize that they will suffer if you 
substitute an inexperienced teacher for one who has had 
ten years of experience and who knows the school thor- 
oughly ? I claim no superiority for men as teachers but it 
seems to me that high school students ought to have some 
masculine influence." 

"I'm rather prejudiced in favor of men teachers myself," 
the president replies, "but I haven't any facts to back up 
my opinion. Whenever teachers have left us, we have made 
a practice of employing younger teachers and, during the 
last few years, when it has been hard to get men and other 
expenses have increased so much, we have engaged v/omen 
teachers almost exclusively. There may have been some 
loss but I haven't seen any evidence of it. I can't ask the 
people to spend a lot more money for a possible advantage 
which is based merely on opinion." 

The teacher sees that his threat of withdrawal has been 
somewhat of a boomerang and he attempts to cover his 
retreat. "I should certainly resign," he says, "if it were 
not for my family responsibilities. I have not been able 



MAKING TEACHING RESPECTABLE 333 

to save anything and I can't afford to take the risk of giving 
up my position without having another, or of starting in a 
different line of work in which I might have to spend years 
to estabHsh myself. If I had only realized that teaching is a 
dead-end occupation, I should never have entered it. Now 
it is too late." His face assumes an expression of complete 
discouragement and he rises to depart. 

The president rises also and puts his hand on the teacher's 
shoulder. *' Young man," he says, "stop pitying your- 
self. It won't get you anywhere. You are exactly in the 
position of the average man, whatever his occupation. 
You haven't nerve enough to fight your way, and you are 
blaming people for not giving you a good living while you 
occupy a safe berth. The world isn't run that way. Leav- 
ing out the few who have been boosted into soft jobs by the 
influence of others, the real successes in life are made by 
people who stand on their own feet, who realize that life 
is a struggle and have enough confidence in themselves to 
take the risks involved in carving out a career. 

I had pretty rough sledding before I got a secure foot- 
hold. Several times I had to dance on the ragged edge. 
If I had not taken risks, I should probably be a clerk now 
on maybe thirty dollars a week, but I was bound to succeed 
and, when I saw a good opening for starting a business of 
my own, I borrowed money and went at it. If I had lost, 
I should have been bankrupt and the wife would have had 
to take in washing. You see I had to succeed. I never 
let the other thought stay in my mind. I knew that I 
had something to sell that people would want if I could make 
them understand it, so I studied and planned and worked 
until I had created a market. If people re,ally want what 



334 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

you have to sell, they will pay for it, whether it is asbestos 
shingles or education. There is no use in scolding them. 
They've got to be shown." 

The teacher ponders the business man's advice. He 
finds much to confirm it. The characterization of himself, 
in the attitude of playing safe and appealing to sympathy 
for bettering his condition, has made him wince. He 
squares his shoulders and prepares to face the issue. "To 
create a market," he says to himself, *'that is the problem. 
We have been railing at the stupidity of the public in fail- 
ing to recognize the necessity of having strong teachers and 
a certain number of men teachers. If people become con- 
vinced of the necessity, they will demand such teachers 
whatever the cost. How can they be convinced?" 

His mind goes back to the president's remark that, while 
there may have been some loss in the replacement of ex- 
perienced teachers by beginners and the reduction of the 
number of male teachers almost to the vanishing point, 
he has seen no indications of such loss. Can the loss be 
made so clear to the tax-payer that he will insist that the 
board of education hold its strong teachers, even if he retains 
his traditional right to scold about the tax-bills ? 

The teacher studies this problem, first making a list of 
all the changes which have been made in the high school 
faculty during the past few years and trying to collect 
evidence of the effect of these changes. To his surprise, 
he finds ver>^ little that is tangible. He is perfectly sure 
that there must have been losses but it seems difficult to 
prove it. There are one or two cases of notable failure in 
discipline by young teachers but these are offset by some 
conspicuous examples of success. "What we need is a 



MAKING TEACHING RESPECTABLE 335 

cost accounting system," he thinks. ''If we cculd only 
show that increased expenditure produces results in terms 
of knowledge and character, people would be willing to 
invest in education just as stockholders support a new out- 
lay when they see a prospect of increased dividends. Small 
chance of that ! You can't measure the results of education 
in any definite way. You can't tell how a boy or girl is 
going to turn out until long after he has left school, and 
then you don't know whether he has succeeded because of 
his education or in spite of it." 

He runs over his own experience and has to admit that, 
while he learned a great deal during the first year or two, 
his work was probably about as effective five years ago as it 
is now. "No wonder," he thinks, ''that people are not 
demanding that my pay be raised for fear of outside com- 
petition for my services. I shall have to make my work 
stand out. We tell the youngster, who is starting in as an 
office boy, to make himself indispensable, but how can I 
make myself indispensable to tax-payers whom I never 
see?" 

This idea of lack of contact between teachers and the 
people who support the schools is turned over frequently 
in the teacher's mind. He becomes interested in analyzing 
the opportunities for becoming widely known. He thinks 
of individuals who are prominent in the town. There are 
the members of the municipal government, of the board 
of education, officers in various organizations, and a few 
who, while occupying no office, are frequently mentioned 
in the papers, are always appointed on committees to deal 
with special community enterprises, and are frequently 
called upon to speak at public meetings. Some of these 



^$6 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

people are not particularly able. There are some small 
tradesmen and a few artisans. Some have never had even 
a grammar school education and murder the king's English. 
But there is something interesting about the personality 
of every one. 

He becomes absorbed in observing these men and comes 
to envy them a common characteristic which he lacks. 
They are almost invariably "good mixers" and they make a 
business of mixing. He himself is rather diffident and 
feels ill at ease and at a loss for conversational material 
when he finds himself in a heterogeneous group although 
he can talk by the hour with another teacher. He wonders 
whether there is anything pecuhar about teaching which 
unfits a person for being a man among men, or is it that 
teaching attracts only the type of man who does not enjoy 
general social intercourse? If neither of these supposi- 
tions is true, why is there no teacher among the real leaders 
in community affairs? 

He knows from his own experience that it is very easy for 
a teacher to become isolated from the rest of the community. 
His work is absorbing, taking many of his evenings. It 
does not bring him into contact with men outside the pro- 
fession. He has little occasion to discuss the subjects which 
other men are apt to talk about when they get together. 
He realizes that it would improve the standing of teachers 
if they were more active in community affairs and if they 
had a wider circle of friends. He wonders whether teachers 
ought to take the initiative in this, and whether a person 
like himself could learn to be more sociable. 

The teacher has heard reports of the enormous fees which 
prominent lawyers and specialists in other fields receive. 



MAKING TEACHING RESPECTABLE 337 

Outward evidences indicate that these men have become 
rich. He sometimes speaks contemptuously of people who 
will pay such exorbitant charges^ and yet apparently there 
is no lack of competition for their services. Discussion 
of this subject and reflection upon it convince him that 
these specialists have mastered a field in which people have 
urgent need of advice. They will pay high fees because 
they have confidence that they will get expert service which 
others cannot render. He wonders if education can ever 
be developed to such a degree, and dreams of the educational 
speciaHst who is able to diagnose individual cases and pre- 
scribe for children as skillfully as the oculist deals with 
defective vision or the consulting engineer directs the 
solution of a problem of water supply. 

All this reflection upon the puzzle has suggested nothing 
very definite in the way of a solution, but it has impressed 
the teacher with the magnitude of the problem and made 
him more interested in the causes of his unsatisfactory 
status and less inclined to blame other people. He is 
influenced still by the president's advice and is determined 
to make a success of his life. 

A conversation with a man who has the reputation of 
being a genius in remembering people's names, in which the 
latter declares that it is simply a matter of attention, that 
almost anyone can do the trick if he makes a business of it, 
leads the teacher to make a determined effort to develop 
some social ability. He joins the Improvement Association 
in his own ward and attends a dinner of his political party. 
He forces himself to take the initiative in speaking to sev- 
eral men, and exerts himself to carry on conversations. 
He has one or two opportunities to correct some false im- 

E. T. PROB. — 22 



338 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

pressions about the schools, but he takes pains to show an 
interest in subjects introduced by others. Before going to 
meetings, he prepares himself by rehearsing topics of con- 
versation and even memorizes some humorous stories — 
heretofore he has been in the habit of declaring that he 
could never remember a joke. All this is at first very 
distasteful but it gradually becomes easier and even enjoy- 
able. He makes many acquaintances and begins to take 
satisfaction in the number of people who nod and smile, 
when he meets them on the street, or pass a famihar greeting 
at the post office or in the bank lobby. When he is made 
chairman of a committee of the Improvement Association, 
he feels that he is really on his way. 

The teacher's dream of an educational specialist, able 
to diagnose and prescribe accurately for educational ills, 
has a permanent effect upon his mind. He recognizes it as 
a dream, yet it comes to be a dominating idea. The first 
practical effect is a decision to volunteer as Scout Master 
of a troop of Boy Scouts connected with one of the churches. 
This position has already been offered to several other teach- 
ers who have felt that they could not afford the time. 
Our teacher is influenced in his decision by recognizing an 
opportunity to study boys. The educational specialist of 
his vision understands children thoroughly, their interests, 
their motives, the stimuli which will bring out the best 
that is in them. He finds in this new work a really fascinat- 
ing occupation. He realizes very quickly how little he 
has understood boys as individuals, and he has some rather 
discouraging experiences at first, but his attitude of the 
student, observing human phenomena and experimenting 
in order to learn the truth, helps him to remain cool when 



AN EDUCATIONAL SPECIALIST 339 

boys are pesky and to be patient with refractory individuals. 
Gradually he acquires a reputation as somewhat of an 
authority on boys. Parents consult him and his first 
published article is on ^'Some Traits of Boy Nature.'* 
A new sense of achievement brings exhilaration and a passion 
for work. 

The need of some means of measuring the effect of teach- 
ing is another problem which occupies the teacher's mind. 
His first attempt is to compare the marks of two successive 
classes, using the same examination paper. The results 
are not very convincing and he is still puzzling over the 
matter when he accidentally learns that others have been 
working on the same problem and that already a good deal 
of experimenting has been done with standard tests. He 
reads all the articles which he is able to find on the subject 
and corresponds with one or two of the authors. The 
result is a conviction that the problem is much more com- 
plicated than he had supposed and that his own tests cannot 
give any reliable information, because they involve so many 
uncertain factors, such as the relative ability of the two 
classes tested and variabihty in judgment of the teacher who 
marks the papers. He sees a lifetime of work for the edu- 
cational specialist. 

The teacher consults a professor at one of the universities. 
He tells about his desire to study education scientifically, 
shows his article on Boy Nature, and explains the work 
which he has been doing and some of the questions which 
baffle him. The professor describes courses which would be 
of value and says that, in order to get very far, the teacher 
would need to spend at least two years in study. The 
teacher thinks that his financial problems would probably 



340 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

make this impossible, and the professor suggests the 
possibility of a fellowship amounting to a few hundred 
dollars. 

The teacher has a talk with his wife and then goes to the 
president of the board of education. He explains his 
ambition and then asks: "Will the board give me a leave 
of absence?" Instead of replying, the president puts a 
question of his own. "How are you going to finance your 
scheme?" "Borrow the money," the teacher repHes. 

"Have you found anyone to lend it to you?" 

"Not yet, but I hope that I can find some people who have 
enough confidence in me to take a chance on my making 
good." 

"Suppose the board refuses a leave of absence," the 
president says sharply. "Then," replies the teacher with 
his chin up, "I shall resign. Here is a chance for a life 
work which needs to be done and which I am sure I can do. 
I'm going to do it." 

"You are taking a big risk," the president suggests. 
"Right," says the teacher, "the same risk that you took 
when you started your business." 

The president slaps him on the back. " Good for you," 
he says, "I had a notion that you had the stuff in you. I 
think I can answer for the board of education." As the 
teacher offers his hand and expresses his thanks, the 
older man adds: "When you go to see your friends about 
that loan, tell them that I am betting a thousand dollars 
on you." 

During the teacher's residence at the university, he 
receives several offers of positions at considerably better 
salaries than he has earned. One of them, a principalship, 



AN EDUCATIONAL SPECIALIST 341 

pays a sum which would have satisfied him before he started 
on his new career. It is a temptation to avoid incurring 
further financial obligations, but he has the feeling that 
his backers might think him a quitter and he decides to 
stick to his purpose. 

Toward the end of the second year, when the prof essor 
under whom he has done his most important work is con- 
gratulating him upon his doctor's dissertation and assuring 
him that its publication will mark a real step forward in 
scientific knowledge of education, the teacher refers to his 
return to pubHc school work. The professor says: *'You 
can make much more money in private practice. When 
your book is published you will be recognized as an authority 
in the special field which you have been studying. You 
are one of a very few who are able to examine an unusual 
child with any degree of precision and prescribe suitable 
treatment for him. There are many people who are deeply 
concerned about children who are not developing normally. 
If such people discover that they can get expert advice, 
not mere guessing, they will crowd your office. If you 
continue to work as you have been doing, you could, in 
time, build up a select clientele and make a large income." 

''I have thought of that," the teacher repHes. "I 
think it could be done, but I have a sort of prejudice against 
using my special knowledge as a monopoly for the benefit of 
the wealthy and primarily for my own profit. It has always 
seemed to me somewhat of a scandal that the legal pro- 
fession which theoretically is devoted to justice and right 
should apparently determine its charges on the basis of 
'what the traffic will bear.' I have taken pride in the 
•thought that teaching is a public service a^d I think that I 



342 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

shall be happier in making whatever contribution I can to 
public education.'' 

Shortly before the time of the teacher's return to work in 
the local schools, a proposition is submitted to the board 
of education, on the recommendation of the superintendent, 
for the employment of the former teacher as assistant 
superintendent. It is explained that his duties will be to 
make scientific studies of all sorts of school problems, to 
examine and recommend treatment for exceptional children, 
and to train teachers in similar work. There is strong 
opposition to the plan. A few members of the board 
support it but the majority are opposed to the creation of 
a new position. One of the newspapers commends the 
opponents of the proposition for refusing to waste the 
people's money on fads. The editor writes, with the 
positiveness of the self-appointed seer, on the necessity of 
resisting all such fantastic departures from the traditional 
training in fundamentals which has produced our great 
men. 

A Httle later, the teacher receives from another school 
system an offer of a position similar to the one proposed. 
His impulse is to accept, but he has set his heart on the 
creation of a market for expert educational service in his 
own community. Finally a compromise is effected by which 
the teacher is to return to his position in the high school, 
but is to have a lighter program of teaching than is assigned 
generally, in order that he may give a part of his time to 
intensive study of school problems. 

The matter is settled shortly before the end of the school 
year and the teacher secures permission to give some tests 
which will enable him to make comparisons at th^ end of th^ 



AN EDUCATIONAL SPECIALIST 343 

following year. He uses standard tests of intelligence and 
of achievement in English, mathematics, and Latin, apply^ 
ing them to all the pupils in the freshman class of the high 
school. He also measures the intelligence of eighth-grade 
pupils who will form the new freshman class and consults 
with them and, in some cases, with their parents, in regard 
to their choice of courses and subjects. Some of the parents 
heed his advice and others insist on having their children 
take the course which is generally regarded as more high- 
toned than the alternatives. 

At the beginning of the new year, he gives tests in several 
subjects to all the freshmen and, on the basis of the results 
of these tests and his intelligence measures, advises the 
principal in regard to the best grouping of the pupils in 
recitation sections. In his own classes, he frequently divides 
the students into groups, varying the work in accordance 
with different capacities. He gives tests and succeeds in 
interesting pupils in measuring their own progress. 

At his own request, he is made *' faculty adviser" of the 
freshman boys. He studies them individually and becomes 
very well acquainted with them. He shov/s an interest in 
their hobbies and develops a relationship which leads boys 
to confide in him and to ask his advice. In a few cases of 
serious misbehavior or moral delinquency which would 
naturally lead to suspension or expulsion, he offers to be 
responsible for the boys and, with one exception, succeeds 
in using the experience as a means of strengthening the 
character of the offender. He meets the boys outside the 
classroom in athletics, occasional hikes, and at club meetings. 
For lack of time, he is obliged to decline persistent appeals 
for similar wort with older boys. 



344 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

At the end of the year, he again measures the achievements 
of the freshmen, using tests which have been scientifically- 
prepared so as to be of exactly the same difficulty as those 
used at the beginning. He analyzes the results and pre- 
pares simple charts showing the facts in a striking form. 
He also studies the number of withdrawals from the fresh- 
man class in comparison with previous years and compares 
the percentages of failure in the various recitation sections. 
With the help of these charts he is able to convince first 
the high school faculty and then the members of the board 
of education of these facts : 

1. Withdrawals from the freshman class have been 
reduced from an average of 35 per cent during the previous 
three years to 16 per cent, although withdrawals from other 
classes have been practically the same as in other years. 

2. The reduction in withdrawals has been greater for 
freshman boys than for girls. 

3. The average rating in the subjects tested is, on the 
whole, higher than at the end of the previous year. Where 
new teachers have succeeded experienced teachers the 
results are poorer. Where classes have been taught by the 
same teachers for the two successive years, the average 
ratings in the two tests are about the same, the differences 
corresponding closely to the differences in pupil abiHty as 
shown by the intelligence tests. The mathematics classes 
taught by the man who has qualified as an expert show 
a much higher average achievement than that displayed 
by corresponding classes in the tests of the preceding June. 

4. Progress during the year in the various recitation 
sections varies widely. When children of nearly the same 
degree of intelligence are compared, th,Q va-ri^tion is strikijig. 



TESTS OF ACHIEVEMENT 345 

5. With one or two exceptions, the progress is distinctly 
greater in the classes taught by experienced teachers than in 
those of beginners. The class taught by one EngHsh 
teacher who is known by her associates to be a superior 
teacher has gone far ahead of the others although the 
average intelligence of her group is not the highest. There 
are fewer cases of little or no progress in the classes taught 
by the investigator than in any of the others. There are 
also in his classes more cases of striking progress by the 
ablest pupils. In other classes, some students who rank 
highest in intelligence have advanced comparatively little 
in power to use EngHsh or in ability to analyze mathe- 
matical problems. 

6. Teachers' marks do not correspond closely with the 
ratings in the standard tests. There is a general agree- 
ment but many exceptions. Teachers' marks correspond 
fairly well with measures of native ability but are very 
inconsistent with measures of progress. Some pupils 
who have failed, according to the judgment of teachers, 
have made excellent progress in terms of their own initial 
achievements. 

7. On the whole, the classes which are most homogeneous 
from the standpoint of intelligence have had fewest failures. 
Only one of the pupils who insisted on taking the college 
preparatory course, against the advice of our teacher, has 
passed in Latin, and this individual has been advised by 
his teacher not to continue the subject. 

The superintendent renews his recommendation for the 
appointment of an assistant to deal with research. This 
time the board is sympathetic but the teacher suggests 
that, before action is taken, an effort be made to convince 



346 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

the public of the need of such work. With this purpose in 
view, a report of the year's experiment, illustrated by re- 
productions of the charts, is printed for general circulation. 
Newspaper comment is secured and opportunities are sought 
for discussion of the subject at various meetings. The 
result is that the editor who had, the year before, called for 
resistance to fads, chides the board for false economy in 
employing inexperienced teachers, and declares that investi- 
gations like the one applied to the freshman class ought to 
be carried out in every department of the school system. 
*^The public demands results," he writes. ''It does not 
expect the board to sacrifice efficiency for the sake of a 
few dollars. It wants the best for its children and it 
is willing to pay whatever is necessary to get results." 

At the same meeting at which the teacher is elected 
assistant superintendent, a communication from a prom- 
inent citizen is read, in which the teacher's work with the 
freshman boys is referred to in enthusiastic terms and 
appeal is made for the employment of more men in the 
high school. 

Soon after the meeting, one of the teachers congratulates 
the new appointee somewhat wistfully upon his promotion. 
*'0h! Your turn will come next," the other repHes en- 
couragingly. ''No such luck!" exclaims the first man. 
" There are mighty few such positions and, of course, I 
haven't your ability anyway. My ambition doesn't run 
so high, but I would like to earn a respectable living." 

"Let me tell you my story," says the new assistant 
superintendent. He explains his own disheartened state 
after ten years of teaching and the incidents which started 
\^ on his new course. '■! am confident," he declares, 



PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 347 

"that there is a career in education for any man who sees 
the possibilities in it and who has ability enough to have 
any right to be intrusted with the education of children. 
The idea that a man cannot amount to anything in school 
work unless he becomes a principal or superintendent is 
all wrong. There is room for the finest kind of professional 
work in the classroom. There are problems there that are 
worthy of the best effort of any man or woman, no matter 
how able ; and when we learn to take our work in a truly 
professional way; when we realize that it is the biggest, 
finest job in the world, that it needs just as careful, exact 
study as any of the other professions ; when we fit ourselves 
to do our work scientifically and demonstrate that we can 
bring about important and definite changes in ability and 
character of boys and girls ; then people will get a new idea 
of education and teachers will win the respect and the re- 
muneration which professional teachers deserve." 

Principles in Regard to Professional Growth 

1. The work of teaching should be regarded as a great pro- 
fession, worthy of the best ability and of the most thorough 
study. 

2. Education is still in a relatively crude stage of develop- 
ment in comparison with other professions. Much of our educa- 
tional material and methods is based upon opinion rather than 
knowledge. Aims are not all in accord with scientific fact. 
The professional teacher will strive to keep abreast of new dis- 
coveries in the field and to test his methods and ideas. 

3. The professional teacher will have a philosophy of educa- 
tion. He will not limit his interest to a small field. 

4. The professional teacher will keep an open mind, will 
avoid prejudice, will welcome new ideas. 

5. The professional teacher will learn from others, through 
books, meetings, observation, and study under leaders. 



348 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

6. The professional teacher will welcome advice and criticism 
and will be critical of his own work. 

7. The professional teacher will feel a responsibility for the 
advancement of the profession. He will take part in profes- 
sional associations, report his own experiments in meetings or 
in publications. 

8. A teacher should set apart a definite time for professional 
study. 

9. The professional teacher will be scientific. He will not 
hold fast to old methods, merely because he is used to them. 
Neither will he adopt new methods merely because they are the 
fashion. He will constantly try to get new light on his problems, 
to improve his work. He will experiment and study results 
carefully. 

10. The professional teacher will regard professional training 
and growth as absolutely necessary — as necessary to him as 
are tools to the artisan. Such training will come first, not last, 
in his program. 

Problems for the Reader to Solve 

Problem 232. — A teacher of very long experience feels that 
she is getting " stale." The work does not interest her as much 
as formerly. She knows the books by heart. She is annoyed by 
the frequent suggestions of new methods made by the principal 
and teachers who have had less experience than she. She used 
to be regarded as an exceptionally strong teacher, and was always 
proud of her results. 

Problem 233. — A teacher, on graduation from normal school, 
begins work in a school providing very little supervision. The 
principal has a superficial view of education, has to spend most 
of his time in teaching, and, aside from that, devotes himself to 
routine. The teacher tries to put into practice the principles 
studied at normal school but finds that they do not seem to 
work. Other teachers tell her that they are not practical. She 
gradually adopts routine methods of little educational value but 
easy to use and making control of the class simpler. After 
two years these methods have become habitual. She does no 
prof essioaal reading except in magazines giving superficial, rule- 



PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 349 

of-thumb methods and devices. A number of superintendents, 
to whom she has been recommended by the normal school, 
visit her but stay only a little while and go away without offering 
her a position. She realizes that they are not satisfied and won- 
ders why. 

Problem 234. — A teacher of six or eight years of experience 
is skillful in dealing with children and gets good results in or- 
dinary school work. She does some professional reading but 
finds some of the books, which are highly recommended, hard 
to understand. They seem theoretical, offering little that she 
can apply to her work. She feels that she ought to gain a 
deeper insight into the problems of education, and has often 
thought that she would like to take some professional courses, 
but there is so much else to be done that she puts it off from 
year to year. 

Problem 235. — A teacher who is a candidate for a position is 
asked by the superintendent to state the chief problems which 
she has encountered. She does not understand what he means, 
is not aware that she has any problems, says that she never had 
any trouble. Oddly enough, the superintendent does not seem 
to regard this uneventful career as a sign of merit. 

Problem 236. — A teacher decides to take a professional course, 
but has difficulty in deciding what to take. Those which are 
most valuable are available for him only in the summer and 
he does not wish to spend the summer in study. 

Problem 237. — A grade teacher is ambitious and decides to 
specialize in some single subject. A friend has done this and 
earns considerably more money than she. She has some doubt 
whether she will like it. 

Problem 238. — A teacher is anxious to know whers her weak- 
nesses Ue, so that she may improve her work. 

Problem 239. — A teacher is expected to spend a day each 
year in visiting schools. She has not received much benefit from 
previous visits and would prefer not to go. The principal agrees 
to excuse her if she is convinced that she can learn nothing from 



$SO PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 

the work of other teachers whom she might visit, but advises 
her to think the matter over and see if she cannot plan her day 
so as to gain something of benefit to the school. 

Problem 240. — A girl goes to normal school because she 
thinks teaching will be agreeable work. The long vacations 
appeal to her. On taking a position, she finds the work pleasant 
enough, but has no desire to remain in it long. As she expects 
to be married in a few years, she sees no need of doing any more 
studying. In a chance conversation, someone expresses the 
opinion that teachers, as public servants, are under obligation 
to make themselves as efiicient as possible, regardless of the time 
during which they intend to teach. 

Problem 241. — A teacher undertakes much work in addition 
to his regular duties in order to add to his income, teaching in 
the evening school, and taking a business position during the 
summer. He has no time for studying, arranges his work 
so that he can get through with his necessary duties, such as 
marking papers, in a minimum of time. A superintendent tells 
him that he is not investing his time wisely. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher, Chapter 

XVI. 
Miller, I. E., Education for the Needs of Life, Chapter VI. 
Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapters XV, 

XVII. 
Palmer, G. H., The Ideal Teacher. 
Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter XV. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER 

Recognition of Problems; a Working Philosophy 
OF Teaching; How to Solve Problems 

"What have been the chief problems in your work as a 
teacher?" This question has been asked again and again 
by the author during interviews with candidates for teach- 
ing positions. In a majority of cases, the teacher has at 
first looked blankly at the questioner and then replied some- 
what doubtfully : "I have always gotten along all right," 
or, "Oh! I have had no trouble v/ith discipHne, if that is 
what you mean." 

How amazing ! A person who has been engaged in one 
of the most complicated and difficult undertakings in the 
world has met no problems ! His eyes have been open but 
unseeing. The physician has a problem, often many 
problems, in every case. The automobile mechanic has 
all sorts of problems in the cars which are brought to him 
for adjustment. The housewife has problems of costs, 
of economy of time, of relations with servants. And the 
teacher has problems — multitudes of them — if he will 
but learn to recognize them. Every child offers a whole 
series of problenis. There are problems in the course of 
study and in methods of teaching. Many parents are 
harder to deal with than the hardest exercises in algebra. 
The principal himself is often a puzzle. 

351 



352 THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER 

The trouble is that most of us, whether teachers or candle- 
stick makers or plain citizens, have never learned to take 
the problem attitude. We are not scientific. We do most 
things according to habit or fashion. When things go wrong, 
we growl, or complain of our hard luck, or find fault with 
the other fellow. We regard a difficulty not as a challenge 
to our ability but as a misfortune for which we, at least, 
are not to blame. 

The scientific person, the problem-solver, has a clear 
purpose. Obstacles to the accomplishment of the purpose 
are not enemies or nuisances but facts. ^ His job is to study 
them, to discover the best means of overcoming them. In 
every walk of life we need more problem-solvers. We need 
them especially in teaching, because our present procedure 
in that field is so terribly unscientific, so dependent on rule- 
of- thumb and fashion and untested opinion. 

The Problem Method of Learning to Teach 

There is much truth in the old adage, *' experience is the 
best teacher." If taken as the sole guide, experience is a 
slow and bungling instructor and is often wrong. Teachers 
who work everything out for themselves, neglecting the 
counsel of those who have been over the road, and shutting 
their eyes to the visions pointed out by the leaders whose 
sight is exceptionally keen, waste endless time for them- 
s 3lves and their pupils. They spend their lives in hard work, 
much of which is expended in the wrong direction, and fail 
t) attain a standard of accomplishment which some had 
reached before they began. Furthermore, they are almost 
sure to acquire strong convictions which are false. Anyone 



THE PROBLEM METHOD 353 

who has attended educational conventions knows that 
teachers of long experience often argue passionately on 
opposite sides of a question, when obviously both cannot 
be right. Nevertheless, the attempt to prepare for teach- 
ing or to improve one's work as a teacher by filling one's 
mind with principles and rules of practice, not associated 
with concrete situations, is usually very ineffective. 

The trouble seems to be that when one reads or hears 
some bit of wisdom which is the outcome of numerous 
experiences on the part of the writer or speaker, but which 
calls forth no definite appHcations in the mind of the reader 
or listener, it lies isolated in the latter's mind, like an 
elaborate piece of furniture in a barely equipped house — 
of no present use and unrelated to the rest of the furnish- 
ings. It is put away for future use and is usually forgotten. 
Even when the occasion presents itself for the proper 
emplojonent of the article the owner may not recognize 
the opportunity, having no backgound of experiences in 
which it has served a similar purpose. On the other hand, 
an article which has been obtained to meet a real present 
need becomes a part of one's life and is often found to be 
serviceable in ways which were not anticipated. 

The author has often visited the classrooms of young 
teachers who had graduated from excellent normal schools 
but whose practice was not at all in accord with the prin- 
ciples which they had studied. They had met practical 
situations which the preparatory course had not made 
familiar to them. The principles which they had studied 
did not seem to fit the conditions. Instead of learning to 
adapt the principles to the new situations, they had shelved 
the principles and acquired, through the method of trial 

» E. T. PROB. — 23 



354 THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER 

and error or by copying other teachers, a technic of teach- 
ing which would work. The ideals of the normal school 
had been laid aside for use under different conditions. 
In the meantime bad habits of teaching were becoming 
fixed. 

It would be of great advantage to the novice if he could 
obtain his preliminary training as apprentice to an expert 
practitioner, who would guide him in his dealing with 
practical problems, aid him in mastering principles which 
furnish the key to their solution, and show him how to find 
in educational literature the light which he needs in order 
to understand and deal with his present difficulties. The 
beginner would then be learning by experience. What he 
learned would not be isolated rules or principles but knowl- 
edge associated with concrete classroom situations. It 
would not be a veneer, connected with normal school pro- 
fessors and examinations, but a part of his daily experience 
with Johnny Jones and Mrs. Smith. 

Such an ideal plan is probably impractical. We have 
not enough practitioners with ^'the root of the matter in 
them" to train the new members. Teachers must obtain 
much of their prehminary training in large groups before 
they begin to teach. Nevertheless, it is possible, I 
think, to change the method of study so as to gain some of 
the advantages of the experience method of learning. 

The person who desires to fit himself for success as a 
teacher cannot usually begin by attempting to teach a 
class, but he need not begin at the other end by trying to 
absorb knowledge of education in the form of general prin- 
ciples and precepts which have for him no concrete reality. 
Will it not be worth while for him to face problems of just 



THE PROBLEM METHOD 355 

the sort which he will be sure to meet when he begins to 
teach ? He has an imagination and, while no statement of 
a problem can take the place of the real thing, it may put 
him in a state of mind similar to that in which he should 
face his pupils. He has before him a real situation. He is 
asked what he would do. He blunders and makes unwise 
proposals, just as in practice he will blunder and do unwise 
things, but the questioning of the instructor and the criti- 
cism of his classmates will help him to see where he is wrong. 
When he is asked to explain why he proposes a certain course 
of action, it will appear that he has more or less hazy ideas 
about the purpose of education or the phenomena of child 
development, which discussion in connection with the con- 
crete problem will correct and make more definite. Thus 
principles will be acquired which are not mere words, but 
beliefs which are connected with real cases. 

Even teachers of experience will agree that often, when 
they read educational books without a specific purpose 
in view, not much of the material remains long in the 
mind in a form definite enough to influence their teaching. 
On the other hand, when a teacher consults a book in order 
to obtain help in the solution of a teaching problem, and, 
having found what he wants, immediately puts it to use, he 
is more likely to remember what he has learned and to use 
it again. 

To sum up the foregoing paragraphs, the most effective 
method, for most people, in learning to teach, as in learning 
to do anything else, is to begin with concrete problems, 
through these to acquire general principles, and then to 
make use of these principles until action in accordance 
with them becomes habitual. 



356 the teacher as problem-solver 

Value of a Working Philosophy of Education 

We have explained the advantage of beginning with 
concrete cases, but if every situation which arises is regarded 
as a separate problem, we shall make Httle progress. It 
has been said that if we had not the power of forming 
habits, it would take us half a day to put on our clothing 
and the other half to remove it. It is equally true that a 
teacher who failed to reduce much of his conduct in the 
classroom to habitual action, and to acquire general prin- 
ciples to guide him in meeting the multitude of situations 
which confront him in the course of a day, would accomplish 
little and would soon be worn out. 

It is the new situation which calls for treatment as a 
problem. This should be studied carefully until the best 
solution is gained, but out of the study should come the 
power of meeting quickly and confidently other situations 
as they arise. It is not merely a precedent which should 
be acquired, for there are as many bad precedents as good. 
It is rather a principle or set of principles, which the study of 
the problem has made clear and explicit, and which will 
henceforth be a famihar beacon in voyaging upon unfamiliar 
waters. 

We are prone to act impulsively, without clear, con- 
sistent reasons for our actions. These cases later plague us 
as precedents. We are charged with being unjust or 
vacillating. We promote one pupil and ''flunk" another 
without having reasons which carry conviction even to 
ourselves. 

Sometimes we acquire very strong convictions without 
an adequate basis for our faith. We believe in the Austrian 



A WORKING PHILOSOPHY OF tE ACHING 357 

method of subtraction, in the value of Latin for all pupils, 
or in suspension as a punishment for truants, and yet 
cases arise which we have to treat as exceptions. 

The trouble is that our ideas, beliefs, and practices are a 
jumble of more or less unrelated elements, gained from 
experience or from books or people in whom we have con- 
fidence. They are not knit together by big fundamental 
ideas about our work, which we have thought through and 
made the framework of our thinking and doing. Our 
views are full of inconsistencies which we have never 
straightened out. We beheve them and hold to them. 
If we are challenged, we dodge. 

The greatest boon which a teacher can possess, for his 
peace of mind and his professional success, is a consistent 
philosophy of education, to which he has given his best 
thought and which rules his conduct. Such a philosophy 
will not be an unchanging belief, for experiences which are 
inconsistent with it will force the teacher to modify it. If 
he grows, it will become richer as he becomes older and 
wiser, but, as far as it goes, it fits his knowledge and experi- 
ence. There are no spots of which he is aware which are 
mental aliens. 

The teacher who becomes a problem-solver will have to 
make up his mind as to the purpose of education, and no 
solution will satisfy him which is not consistent with this 
purpose. He will seek constantly to know more about the 
facts of child nature and the needs of society and will mold 
his philosophy of education and his methods of teaching to 
fit them. As he meets new situations, he will make use of 
the principles which he has already acquired and will fit 
his new principles into the growing structure. 



358 THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER 

How TO Solve Problems 

If one would become a problem-solver, one must think 
for one's self Accepting statements which one reads or 
hears, without considering the facts in the case or the reasons 
for the statements, is not thinking. One must learn to 
weigh evidence and to test conclusions. 

Much of the mental activity which passes for thinking 
consists in devising arguments to bolster up a belief which 
one has adopted without any thoroughgoing consideration 
and which one is unwilling to abandon. Almost everyone, 
if he considers conscientiously the basis of his political 
allegiance, will agree that he has not a consistent, unassail- 
able basis for his belief. He is an ardent RepubHcan or a 
devoted Democrat. An argument by a supporter of the 
other party seems to him silly or false. It makes him angry 
to read an editorial on the other side. Anything which is 
said or written in favor of his candidate or his party, or 
against the other candidate or party, pleases him and is 
accepted as gospel. The fact is that he is not looking for 
the truth. He knows the truth in advance and is almost 
ready to fight anything or anybody that opposes it. 

The same sort of "thinking" is common enough in the 
educational world. A teacher becomes an adherent of 
"supervised study." He puts it into practice and at once 
notices a great improvement. Any criticism of the plan 
only makes him firmer in his conviction. Favorable results 
are attributed to the new method. Shortcomings are 
explained as the effect of adverse conditions. Another 
teacher is unfavorably impressed when he first hears of 
"supervised study." Perhaps a friend teaching in another 



HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS 359 

system has remarked that the method is a failure. Our 
teacher opposes its introduction, points out all the objec- 
tions which he can think of, and interprets the good results 
reported as accidental or due to other causes than the 
method itself. Both teachers are fooling themselves. 
They are not trying to solve a problem but to support a 
conviction acquired in a more or less accidental way. 

The true problem-solver does not start with a bias but 
with an open mind. He is ready to consider any suggestion 
which comes to him, but only as something to be tested. 
He asks himself constantly ''Why?" He will discard an 
idea which seemed clever, if a fair test shows that it will 
not work. He will welcome criticism and will be critical 
himself of what seems at first to be a real discovery. 

To illustrate the point, let us suppose that a teacher has 
reported that a neighboring school has introduced a plan 
of supervised study. Home study is abandoned, the periods 
are lengthened, and each teacher is expected to devote half 
the period to supervision of pupils in preparing the new 
lesson. The teacher reporting the plan is enthusiastic 
about it and urges that it be adopted. The problem- 
solving teacher will not immediately take sides and offer 
superficial arguments for his position. He will suggest 
that the matter be studied. Perhaps a committee will be 
appointed to visit the other school, observe the work and 
talk with teachers and principal. On his return, he will 
report as chairman of the committee what he has learned 
about the plan. If, as is probable, he has found that there 
are valid arguments on both sides of the question, he may 
conclude that the method is not a satisfactory solution of 
the problem of teaching pupils to study, and will give his 



360 THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER 

reasons for advising against a change, or he may consider 
it promising enough to be given a careful trial in one class. 
If the decision is adverse, our teacher will seek for some 
other solution of the problem. If a trial is decided upon, 
he will help to devise a method of testing the effect of the 
new plan in comparison with the prevailing method. 

Conclusion 

The aim of this book has been to help teachers to recog- 
nize their problems, to work them out, to formulate prin- 
ciples, and to organize these principles into a working 
philosophy of education — in short, to become professional, 
problem-solving teachers. Whether this aim has been 
realized must be left to the reader's judgment. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter VII. 
La Rue, D. W., Psychology for Teachers, Chapter XII. 
McMurry, F. M., How to Study, Chapter DC. 
Moore, E. C, What is Education? Chapter I. 



INDEX 

Numbers in heavy-faced type refer to problems for which solutions are given in the 
text; numbers in italics refer to problems which are merely stated, to be solved by the 
reader; numbers in ordinary type refer to pages. 



Ability of pupils, variations in: see 
Individital Differences. 

Administrative officers, relations with: 
autocratic superintendent, 183-269; 
conscientious principal, 179-251 ; con- 
flict of authority, 186-27$', coopera- 
tion, 294-274, 195-274; criticism, 
171^-251; disapproval of officer's 
procedure, 190-274, 792-274, iq3~ 
274; discipline, 17-34, 18-35. 32-42, 
34-51, 52-57; easy principal, 179- 
251 ; factional controversy, 167- 
237; frankness, 179-251; going 
over superintendent's head, 180-255 ; 

i new assignments, 181-260, 19J-274, 

' tgB-275, 228-318; opposition to 
superintendent, 180-255, 1^9-274, 
19(5-274; personal problems, 166- 
229 ; preparation for opening school, 
140-202 ; principles, 272 ; promotion, 
126-176, 140-202; release from con- 
tract, 182-264 ; resentment over sup- 
posed personal injury, 187-27$ ; 
sending pupils to principal, 27-39, 
184-273, 18S-273; suspicion of 
prejudice, 188-273 ; teacher who asks 
favors, J99-275 ; teacher who is not 
reappointed, 197-275. 

Aims, see Purpose. 

Algebra, value of, 81-113. 

Americanization, 2 1 6-303 . 

Appreciation: of beauty, 179-165; of 
music, 66-76, of poetry, 106-150. 

Arithmetic: ' correcting individual 
weaknesses, 105-146; in first grade, 
72-95, 74-112 ; long division, 69-78 ; 
number combinations, 12/-166 ; 
variation of ability in, 128-1S2; 
wrong type of seat work, 144-210. 



Board of Education: appeal of organ- 
izations to, 54-114 ; appeal of parents 



to, 6-27, 83-114, 214-296, 221-316; 
appeal of teachers to, 9-28, 167-237, 
180-255, 1^9-274; cooperation of 
teachers with, ^-27, K52-227; male 
teachers, 231-331 ; teachers' salaries, 
231-331. 
Boy Scouts, 231-331. 

Child's attitude : principles, 73 
Child nature: appetite, 158-227; boy 
problem, 231-331; bully, 40-54; 
first grade children, 72-95 ; girl who 
is "boy crazy", 36-54; imagination, 
38-54; instinctive dislike, 55-70; 
64-76, 68-77 ', kindergarten children, 
31-41 ; older boys will not tell on each 
other, 34-51, 41-54; principles, 53; 
pugnacity, 32-42, 57-54; resentment 
toward injustice, 17-34, 20-38; re- 
sponse to confidence, 52-57; self- 
conscious child, 55-54; sullen child, 
1-13; tattling, 57-54, 42-55 ; teasing, 
32-42 ; timid child, 4^-56. 
Citizenship, training for: cooperation 
of parents and pupils needed, 215- 
299, 216-303; democratic attitude, 
55-70; fire prevention, 118; health, 
155-220; high school curriculum, 
52-114; many children leave school 
too early, 89-122, 216-303; ma- 
terial for third grade, 92-132 ; value 
of history, 71-91. See also Self- 
direction. 
College entrance requirements, i7- 
Compulsory education, 216-303. 
Cooperation: between teachers, 200- 
277; with administrative officers, 
167-237, 180-255, 181-260, J95-274; 
with parents, 153-21 5, 214-296, 
215-299, 217-308; with pupils, 17- 
34, 18-35, 33-45, 34-51. 104-144, 
105-146; 147-210; with supervisors, 



361 



362 



INDEX 



166-229, 167-237, 168-244, ^75-249, 
l7<5-249, 177-249- 

Corporal punishment, see Punishment. 

Criticism : by administrative officers, 
179-251, 186-2"/$; by educators, 
^0-113, 5z-ii3; by parents, 6-27, 
83-114, ^7-115, Q6-133, 153-215, 
217-308, 220-316, 22Z-316; by 
pupils, 204-293 ; by supervisors, 
73~io3, 121-166, I4Q-2I1, 167-237, 
Z70-248 ; by teachers, 70-86, 72-95, 
86-iis, 99-133, 125-172, 126-176, 
152-212, 166-229, 176-237, 168-244, 
170-248, 174-249, 17^-249, 180- 
255, 183-269, 18S-273, 180-274, 
193-274, 200-277, 202-284, 203-286, 

205-293, 210-294, 2J7-294, 2I2~ 

294; of administration, 126-176, 
183-269, 75^-274, 205-293, 270-294; 
of administrative officers, 180-255, 
185-273, 1 Q 3-27 4 ; of course of study, 
70-86, 72-95, ^0-113, 57-113, 83- 
114, 86-11$, 57-115, 96-133, 99- 
133 ; of examinations, 72-103, 277- 
294; of method, 727-166, 200-277, 
217-308; of pupils, 125-172; of 
school, 207-293, 220-316; of super- 
visors, 152-212, 166-229, 168-224, 
770-248, 774-249, 775-249; of 
teachers, <5-27, 149-211, 153-215, 
770-248, 179-251, 186-273, 202-284, 

203-286, 204-293, 272-294, 227- 

316; of textbooks, 7-91. 
Current events, P5-132. 
Course of study, see Subject matter. 
Curriculum, see Subject matter. 

Differentiation in course of study: 
arguments pro and con, 89-122; 
primary grades, 72-95; grammar 
grades, 124-170; junior high school, 
P5-I33; high school, 2-16, 95-132, 
125-172, 752-183; different en- 
vironments, 700-133 ; obstacles, 707- 
133 ; science for boys and girls, 97- 
133; talented pupils, 757-183, 754- 
184. 

Diploma : basis of award, 2-16 ; signi- 
ficance, 18. 

Discipline: beginner's difficulties, 202- 



284; betting, 34-51, 65-76; boy who 
hates school, 16-32, 62-76; boy who 
won't try, 77-28; bully, 40-54; 
carelessness, 25-39 ; cheating, 2^^-40, 
54-67, d7-75 ; child who interferes 
with others, 28-30; control of 
instinctive behavior, 32-43 ; co- 
operation with principal, 184-273, 
185-273, 186-273; disorderly class, 
17-34, 18-35, ■rp-38, 27-38, 27-39, 51- 
56; fighting, 57-54; girl who is "boy 
crazy," 5(5-54; idleness, 140-202; in- 
jury of school property, 24-39, 43- 
55, 52-57, 63-76 ; intolerance, 55-7P ; 
lazy, impudent truant, 1-13 ; lying, 
55-54 ; impudence, 59-75 ; inatten- 
tion, 49-56 ; probable culprit, 20-38, 
50-40; restless child, 25-39; self- 
conscious child, 55-54 ; selfish child, 
31-41 ; smoking, 57-75 ; stubborn 
pupil, 56-74; talking out, 33-45, 
46-55; tattling, 57-54, 42-55 ; tardi- 
ness, 15-31, 22-39 ; timid child, 48-56. 

Drawing, 75-113, 779-165, 757-183. 

Dull pupils, 75-29, 183-269. 

Economy of time : difficulty in covering 
course of study, 70-86, 137-186; 
eliminating waste, 138-190 ; living by 
program, 139-193 ; misdirected effort, 
146-210, 747-210, 149-21 1 ; prepa- 
ration in advance, 140-202, 745- 
210; principles, 208; teacher who is 
"swamped" with work, 139-193, 
747-209, 745-211; waste of pupils' 
time, 742-209, 745-209, 744-209, 
750—211. 

Education, purpose of, 25. 

Efficiency: definition, 757-211; prin- 
ciples, 194; scientific method, 231, 
331 ; system, 139-193 • 

English composition: correction of 
errors, 775-165, X45-2ii; drill, 777- 
165; foreign children, 123-167; 
grammar, 4-21 ; literary society, 
55-70 ; real problems, 73-103. 

English literature: aims, 73-103, 106- 
150 ; examination, 73-103 ; teaching 
a poem, 106-150; testing mastery of 
ideas, 73-103. 



INDEX 



3^3 



Examinations : affect teacher's freedom 
in choice of subject matter, go; 
cheating, 61-75; criticising an ex- 
amination, 73-103. 

Experience: measuring the value of, 
231-331 ; learning by experience, 352. 

Experiment : developing self-direction, 
200-277 ; economizing time, 140-202 ; 
effect of rapid promotion, 126-176; 
overcoming differences between high 
school and elementary school teachers, 
203-286; "seUing" education, 231- 
331- 

Expvdsion, 1-13. 

Fire prevention, 88-116. 

First grade: arithmetic, 74-112; course 
of study, 72-95 ; developing initiative, 
5^-75 ; relation to kindergarten, pi- 
131. 

Foreign children: attitude of other 
pupils, 68-77; language handicap, 
123-167; modified course for, 100- 
133; parental influence, 216-303. 

Frankness: between teacher and ad- 
ministrative officer, 179-251, 180- 
255, 184-273 ; between teacher and 
supervisor, 166-229, 167-237, lyi- 
249, 174-249- 

French, value of, 79-113. 

Geography: course of study, go-isx; 
essential facts, 70-86, ^5-114; proj- 
ects, 70-86 ; purpose of studying, 88 ; 
socialized recitation, 103-138; suit- 
able assignment for given grade, 70- 
86 ; use of textbook, 70-86. 

Gossip: 167-237, 180-255, 20(5-293, 
270-294, 2ii-2g4, 272-294. 

Grading of pupils: 5-27,75-28, 125- 
172, 126-176, J50-183, 183-269. 

Graduation, 2-16. 

Grammar: aim in teaching, no; tests, 
in; value in elementary school, 4- 
21. 

Habits: breaking bad habits, 42-55 
to 47-56, 49-56, 105-146; drill, 50-56, 
51-56; health, 155-220, 158-227; 
principles of habit formation, 53; 



pupils' habits reflect teacher's prac- 
tice, 74-29, 18-35, 27-38, 103-138. 

Health: children's dress, 154-217; 
classroom hygiene, 152-212 ; coopera- 
tion with parents, 153-215 ; effect of 
rapid promotion, 178; exercise, 154- 
217; of teachers, 139-193, 759-227 
to 163-228] principles, 226; sleep, 
154-217; teacher's example, 154- 
217; teacher's responsibility, 152- 
212. 154-217, 7<54-228; translating 
knowledge into habits, 154-217, 165- 
228. 

High School: course of study, 71-91, 
76-112, 7P-II3, 81-113, 82-114, 
83-114, 87-115, 88-116, 89-122, p5- 
132, 97-133, 9P-133; discipline, 29- 
40, 34-51, 36-54, 61-75, <^5-76, 227- 
317; examinations, 73-103; extra- 
curricular activities, 198-275; func- 
tion of, 17, 18, 75-29, 125-172; 
graduation, 2-16; ideals, 55-70, 66- 
76, 68-77; individual differences, 
125-172, 729-182, 752-183; men 
teachers, 231-331 ; methods, 74-29, 
71-91, 104-144, 106-150, 170-164, 
774-164, 722-166; not understood 
by elementary teachers, 203-286; 
teacher's attitude, 75-28, 125-172, 
229-322; withdrawal from, 7-27, 
16-32. 

History : purpose of teaching, 71-91 ; 
selection of material, 71-91 ; wrong 
method, 709-163. 

Home and school association, 217-308, 
225-316. 

Home environment: degrading home, 
1-13; foreign home, 216-303; un- 
hygienic home, 153-215; teacher 
should understand, 13, 123-167. 

Home study, 138-190. 

Ideals: control of conduct, 53-60; 
cooperation among teachers, 201-281, 
203-286; democracy, 55-70, 64-76, 
68-77 ; fair-play, 54-67 ; good taste, 
66-76; health, 154-217, 155-220, 
158-227, 164-228; honesty, S4-67, 
d7-65 ; principles relating to, 74 ; 
professional spirit, 230-326; self- 



3^4 



INDEX 



control, 32-42, 33-45, 67-76; 
teacher's chief duty to develop, 66, 
66-76 ; need of common ideals, 200- 
277 ; use of history in developing, 
71-91 : use of literature in develop- 
ing, 106-150. 

Individual differences : group teaching, 
152-183: foreign children, 123-167; 
in arithmetic, 105-146, 111-164, 
122-182 ; in handwork, /27-182 ; 
in mathematics, 1 10-164; in music 
and drawing, 131-183 ; in reading, 
138-190; in science, 129-182; in 
spelling, 105-163, 125-182; in tem- 
perament, 15; mass teaching inef- 
fective, 124-170; principles, 181; 
pupils who are below "high school 
standard," 125-172; rapid promo- 
tion, 126-176; relation to promotion, 
130-183; talented pupil, 154-184; 
variation in lesson assignments, 132- 
183 ; variation in a single grade, 72- 
95, 124-170. 

Industrial arts, 75-112, 102-134. 

Interest : arousing interest in overcom- 
ing deficiencies in arithmetic, 105- 
146; developing interest in poetry, 
106-150; relation of repetition to, 
117; more effective than domination, 
214-296; variation in children's 
interests calls for differentiation of 
subject matter, 128; test of ap- 
propriateness of subject matter, 4-21. 

Junior high school, Q8-133. 

Kindergarten : developing initiative, 
55-75 ; importance of, 8-27 ; punish- 
ment, 25-39 ; spoiled child, 31-41 ; 
teaching fire prevention, 117; timid 
child, 45-56; transition to first 
grade, 91-13 1. 

Language : correcting errors of speech, 
45-55, 115-165 ; grammar in the 
elementary school, 4-21 ; problem 
of the foreign child, 123-167 ; rules 
and definitions ineffective, / 17-165. 
See also English composition. 

Latin, value of, 50-113. 

Leaving school: distaste for school, 



16-32 ; exploitation of children, 216- 

303; for financial advantage, 7-27; 
from the high school, 125-172, 231- 
331; variation in length of school 
career calls for differentiation in 
course of study, 128. 

Lesson assignments: pupil partici- 
pation, 104-144; too much written 
work, 141-209; variation in accord- 
ance with individual needs, 124-170, 
/52-183, 137-186, 138-190. 

Lesson plans, 69-78, 75-113, 95-132, 
107-155, 744-210, 1^5-228, 175-249. 

Manners, training in, 217-308. 

Manual training, see Industrial Aris. 

Marks: claim of unfairness, 55-54; 
threat of "zero," 44-55; unre- 
liability, 231-331; use as incentive, 
122-166. 

Mathematics: wrong method, 710-164, 
150-21 1. See also Arithmetic ani 
Algebra. 

Measurement : of ability, 126-176, 183- 
269 ; of results of teaching, 231-331. 

Memory : avoid examinations which are 
exclusive tests of, 73-103; value of 
forgotten knowledge, 55-114. 

Men teachers, 231-331. 

Methods : conflict of opinion in re- 
gard to, 166-229, 172-249; drill, 
105-146; English literature, 106- 
150; experiment the best test of, 
166-229; geography, 70-86; group 
teaching, 124-170; handwork, 102- 
134 ; history, 72-95 ; individual 
progress, 124-170, 138-190; prin- 
ciples, 162; project method, 107- 
155 ; relation to purpose, 102-134, 
J19-165, 120-165; socialized reci- 
tation, 103-138; spelling, J05-163; 
testing ability in composition, 73- 
103 ; transforming the dull recitation, 
104-144. 

Motivation : in arithmetic, 69-78, logr 
146 ; in composition, 73-103 ; in 
French, 79-113; in geography, 120- 
165; in high school, 104-144; lack 
of, ZJ-28, 16-32, 102-134, 742-209; 
wrong motive, 775-165. 



mDEX 



3^S 



National Education Association, 230- 

326. 
Nature study, Q4-132. 

Parents, relations with: angry parent, 
215-299, 220-316; conflict of ideals, 
7-27, 215-299, 216-303, 2/^-315; 
cooperation, 16-32, 140-202, 164- 
228, 224-316; domineering parent, 
214-296, 217-308; foreigners, 123- 
167, 216-303 ; meddlesome parent, 
217-308; parental indifference to 
child's welfare, 216-303 ; parent who 
accepts child's version, 221-316; 
parent who combats school influence, 
153-215, 214-296; parent who con- 
demns school methods, ^5-114, 57- 
iiS, 116-165, 217-308, 222-316; 
parent who wants favors, 2x5-315, 
21^316, 225-316; principles, 314; 
xmreasonable parent, 6-27, 214-296; 
when teacher is in the wrong, 15-30, 
215-299, 22(5-3 1 6, 227-217. 

Parent-teacher association, see Home 
and School Association. 

Penmanship, jj-28, 222-316. 

Philosophy of education, -24, 356. 

Prejudice : against foreigners, 68-77 ; 
against negroes, 155-184, 225-316; 
against new duties, 180-255, 181- 
260; against new ideas, 153-215; 
against new methods, p-28, 62, 132- 
183, /55-183, 166-229, 168-244, 200- 
277 ; against new plans, 53-60, 126- 
176, 18Q-274 ; against people, 55-70, 
201-281, 20(5-293, 167-237, 187-273, 
188-273; against reduction of va- 
cation, 140-202, 236-3/^g, 205-293 ; 
against teachers of another depart- 
ment, 203-286, 211-294; in favor of 
one's own interests, ^0-113. 

Principal, see Administrative officers. 

Principles: general, 25; child's at- 
titude, self-direction, ideals, 73 ; 
child nature and habit formation, 53 ; 
economy of time, 208; health, 226; 
method, 162 ; professional growth, 
347 ; relations with administrative 
officers, 272; relations with other 
teachers, 293 ; relations with parents. 



3x4; relations with supervisors, 247; 
rules and punishments, 37 ; subject 
matter, iii, 131 ; variation in pupils' 
ability, 181. 

Problems : how to solve, 358 ; learning 
to teach by studying problems, 352, 
teacher who has no problems, 235-' 
349, 351- 

Professional growth: broadening field 
of interest, 228-318 ; challenge of the 
bigger job, 228-318; education as 
pubUc service, 231-331 ; education as 
a science, 229-322, 231-331; financ- 
ing professional education, 231-331; 
"jack of all trades," 241-350; joy in 
teaching, 229-322; keep out of the 
ruts, 228-318; learning from others, 
259-349 ; narrow view of the subject 
specialist, 229-322; participation in 
professional associations, 230-326; 
principles, 347; professional in- 
fluence, 230-326; recognition of 
problems, 255-349 ; "rule of thumb " 
teacher, 225-348, 353 ; salaries, 231- 
331 ; standing of profession, 231-331 ; 
teacher who is "stale," 252-348; 
temporary teacher, 240-350; time 
for professional study, 139-193, 234- 
349, 236-34^ ; understanding problem 
of education, 229-322; use of va- 
cations, 25(5-349. 

Profession of teaching : calls for mutual 
helpfulness, 201-281 ; depends on 
scientific method, 231-331 ; requires 
evening work, 200; should exert a 
national influence, 230-326; stand- 
ing affected by teacher's conduct, 
182-264. See also Professional 
growth. 

Projects: fire prevention, 121; for 
fifth grade, 168-244 ; for first grade, 
95; health club, 225; in geography, 
90, 168-244; in handwork, 137; in 
self-control, 33-45, 47-56, 52-57; 
study club, 104-144. 

Project method: what it is, 107-iSS; 
essential idea purpose, 157; is it a 
method? 158; supervisor's part, 
168-244; teacher's part, iS9, 168- 
244. 



366 



INDEX 



Promotion: criticism of teacher's 
judgment, 195-274; factor of ma- 
turity, 126-176; of backward pupils, 
5-27, 183-269; parents' complaints, 
d-27, 220-316; rapid promotion, 
124-170, 126-176, 138-190; relation 
to individual differences, 130-1S3 ; 
to high school, 125-172. 

Publicity: newspaper agitation, 180- 
255, 215-299 ; salary campaign, 230- 
326; "selling" education to the 
public, 231-331. 

Punishment: avoid enforced idleness, 
38, 25-39, 2(5-39; avoid forced 
apology, 52-57, 59-75 ; corporal 
punishment, 13, 215-299; don't 
punish a whole class, 17-34, i9~3^ ', 
expulsion, 13 ; keeping pupils after 
school, 18-35; principles, 38; re- 
venge, 1-13 ; should be just, 15-30, 
18-35, 20-38, 50-40; should fit 
offence, 21-38; should fit purpose, 
15-30, 16-32, 28-39, 29-40, 32-42, 
54-67; should not need frequent 
repetition, 18-35. 

Pupil's ability, see Individual differences. 

Pupil's attitude : boy who hates school, 
16-32, 62-76; during recitation, 
104-145 ; pupil who doesn't see the 
use of a requirement, Ji-28; pupil 
who is at war with the world, 13 ; 
toward cheating, 54-67 ; toward in- 
justice, 52-57 ; toward other children, 
55-70, 64-76, 68-77; toward re- 
sponsibility, 53-60 ; toward telling on 
another, 34-51, 4^-54- 

Purpose: essential element in project 
method, 107-155 ; guide to conduct, 
66, 71, 125-172, 153-215, 236, 214- 
296, 215-299; of course of study, 
137-186; of education, 25, 357; of 
teaching grammar, 1 10 ; of teaching 
handwork, 102-134; o^ teaching 
=+ory, 71-91; of teaching poetry, 
-0-150. 

Reading: problem of the foreign child, 
123-167; selection of material, 12- 
28 ; standards in first grade, 103 ; 
teacher's reading, 4-21, 33-45, 149- 



211, 139-193, 229-322, 254-349; 
time wasted in oral reading, 138-190. 

Relations with other teachers : barrier 
between high school and elementary 
school, 203-286; conference on 
personal problems, JO-28, 154-217, 
179-251, 229-322,230-326, 231-331; 
conference on school problems, 1-13, 
2-16, 4-21, p-28, 16-32, 53-60, 69- 
78, 70-86, 72-95, 88-116, 89-122, 
po-131, 103-138, 106-150, 107-155, 
126-176, 155-183, J55-184, 140-202, 
167-237, 168-244,228-318; coopera- 
tion, 5-27, 200-277, 275-295; ex- 
clusive teacher, 209-293 ; fault- 
finding, 212-294; helping the begin- 
ner, 202-284; homesick teacher, 208- 
293 ; interest in each other's work, 
200-277, 202-284; jealousy, 201- 
281, 204-293, 201-294; opposing 
public sentiment, 205-293 ; partisan- 
ship, 207-293, 2JZ-294; prejudice, 
20(5-293; principles, 292. 

Reports, 180-255. 

Resignation, 166-229, 182-264, 231- 
331- 

Responsibility, see Teacher^s respon- 
sibility. 

Retardation, 5-27, 124-170, 183-269. 

Rules: inflexible rules dangerous, 15- 
30, 22-39, 25-39, principles relating 
to, 37- 

Salaries: attitude of public, 231-331; 
relation to demand and supply, 231- 
331 ; jealousy in regard to, 270-294; 
payment according to merit, 263; 
work of the N. E. A., 230-326. 

Self-control, see Self-direction. 

Self -direction : development of, 3-20, 
32-42, 33-45, 39-SA, 46-55, 47-56, 
53-60, 5^-75, 104-144, 107-155, 
138-190, 200-277; more effective 
than domination, 17-34, 52-57, 60- 
75, <57-75, 67-76, 102-134, 147-210, 
217-308; principles, 73. 

Self-reliance, see Self -direction. 

Socialized recitation: genuine and 
counterfeit forms contrasted, 103- 
138; relation to project method, 
107-155. 



INDEX 



367 



Spelling: fiction of the "good old 
days," 217-308 ; minimum essentials, 
^<5-ii5; wrong method, 105-163. 

Standards: "high school standard," 
125-172; of discipline, 2/2-294; 
of promotion, 130-183; proper 
standard the pupil's best, 2-16; 
variable standard, 72-95. 

Standard tests : use in improving work 
in arithmetic, 105-146; use in 
measuring results of teaching, 231- 
331- 

Subject matter: algebra, 81-113; 
appropriateness of material for vari- 
ous grades, 4-21, 69-78, 116, po-131, 
92-132, p6-iss, 9Q-133, 229-322 ; 
arithmetic, 69-78, 74-112, 77-113; 
citizenship, 82-114, 84-114., 92-132; 
current events, 95-132 ; diflferentia- 
tion, 89-122, 97-133, 95-133; draw- 
ing, 75-113; first grade, 72-95, qi- 
131; French, 79-113; geography, 
70-86, 55-114, 90-131, 103-138, 
137-186; high school, 7<5-i32, 57- 
115,^5-132; history, 71-91 ; kinder- 
garten, 9Z-131; Latin, 50-113; 
literature, 73-103 ; nature study, Q4- 
132 ; not an end in itself, 102 ; 
principles for selection of material, 
119, 137-186; principles relating to, 
III, 131; reading, 12-28; relation 
to project method, 107-155 ; science, 
P7-I33, PP-133, /00-133, 701-133; 
spelling, 5<5-ii5; teacher's responsi- 
biUty for selecting, 69-78, 71-91 ; 
value of forgotten knowledge, 55- 
114; what should everybody know? 
54-114. 

Superintendent, see Administrative of- 
ficers. 

Supervised study, 358, 359. 

Supervision, value of, 166-229, 17S- 
249. 

Supervisors, relations with: attitude 
toward criticism, 73-103, 102-134, 
166-229, 170-249, 772-249; con- 
flicting ideas, 774-164, 752-183, 755- 
183, 152-212, 166-229, J72-249; 
cooperation, 88-116, 167-237, 168- 
244, 16Q-24S, 172-249, 775-249, 176- 



249, 777-249 ; frankness, 168-244, 
769-248,777-249; in developing new 
work, 168-244; is supervision nec- 
essary? 166-229, 775-249; jealousy 
of supervisor, 167-237; justifying 
selection of subject matter, 72-28, 
7d-ii2, 77-113, 97-133, 100-133, 
707-133 ; misunderstanding, 168- 
244, 774-249 ; principles, 247 ; self- 
consciousness, 166-229; supervisor 
who bosses, 775-249. 

Tardiness: of teacher, 179-251; rules 
and punishments, 15-30, 22-39. 

Taxes : public attitude toward support 
of schools, 231-331. 

Teacher: should be scientific, 26, 352; 
should have confidence in himself, 
231-331 ; should not be diverted 
from his purpose, 214-296; should 
not take a personal view, 26, 5-27, 
9-28, 70-28, 32-42, 153-215, 214- 
296, 215-299, 228-318; should set 
a good example, 154-217. 

Teachers: relations with other. See 
Relations with other teachers. 

Teacher's attitude : toward administra- 
tive oflScers, 179-251; toward col- 
leagues, 200-277 to 275-294; toward 
criticism, 102-134, 152-212, 179-251 ; 
toward extra-curricvdar activities, 
795-275 ; toward handicapped pupils, 
75-28, 74-29, 123-167, 125-172, 
7<54-228; toward his professional 
career, 231-331; toward new plans, 
9-28, 53-60, 126-176, 180-255, 759- 
274, 790-274; toward professional 
ideals, 70-28; toward pupils' delin- 
quencies, 1-13, 34-51, 4P-S6, 59-75; 
toward supervisors, 166-229, 167- 
237, 774-249; toward transfer, 181- 
260; toward unreasonable parent, 
153-215, 214-296, 215-299. 

Teachers' meetings, 13, 2-16, jf:'''6o, 
72-95, 88-116, 107-155, I2feai.76, 
140-202, 200-277, 201-281. 

Teachers' responsibility: for construc- 
tive criticism, 795-274; for con- 
tributing to the influence of the 
profession, 230-326; for helping to 



36S 



INDEX 



settle a controversy, 167-237 ; for 
developing self-control, 4-21 ; for get- 
ting a thorough professional equip- 
ment, 234-349, 240-350, 241-350; 
for health of children, 152-212, 157- 
227; for his own health, 159-227, 
160-22'/ ; for hygienic conditions of 
school, 22S-163 ; for keeping a con- 
tract, 18.2-264; for keeping children 
in school, 216-303 ; for participating 
in public affairs, 231-331 ; for re- 
fraining from public criticism of 
colleagues, 180-255; for reporting 
defects to person responsible, 180- 
255 ; for selecting subject matter, 
12-28,69-78, 76-113; for setting a 
good example, 154-217; for sharing 
in school administration, 194-274-, 
for success of the whole school system, 
8-27, 181-260, 228-318; for acquaint- 



ance with pupils' homes, 224-316; 

for welfare of pupils, 183-269. 
Textbooks: deficiencies of, 69-78, 71- 

91; selection of, 77-113; use in 

geography, 70-86. 
Time, see Economy of time. 
Transfer: of teacher to another grade, 

iQi-274, 228-318 ; to another school, 

10-28, 163-228, 179-251, 181-260. 
Truancy, 13. 

Variation in ability of pupils, see 
Individual differences. 

Visiting schools : to establish an entente 
between high school and elementary 
school teachers, 203-286 ; to study a 
method, 4-21, 103-138; teacher who 
gains nothing by visiting, 239-349, 

Withdrawals, see Leaving school. 
Working papers, 216-303. 



